英國留學(xué)生語言學(xué)課程作業(yè)：斯蒂芬鋼坯dissertation的翻譯要點分析Stephen billet paper analyzes the translation of key points
ⅠSource Text
Ⅰ源文本
1.1 Text Choice
1.1文本選擇
In order to meet the need of economic development, in many advanced industrial economies, the emphasis of the programs in higher education has shifted from the liberal art towards the preparation for specific occupations. While some educators think it inconsistent with the purposes of higher education. Instead of catering to the economic interests, they argued that the purposes of higher education are to develop students’ capacity of self-study, and prepare them to become the person with insightful, reflective, and critical thoughts. Opinions on this issue vary in educational world. As an educator, Stephen Billet suggested that integrating work experiences in higher education could coordinate that controversy. In his “Realising the educational worth of integrating work experiences in higher education” published in Studies in Higher Education, he illustrated the educational worth of integrating practice-based experience in higher education, and proposed some kinds of curriculum and pedagogic practices to secure this educational worth.
為了滿足經(jīng)濟發(fā)展的需要，在許多發(fā)達工業(yè)經(jīng)濟體，文科高等教育計劃的重點已從對特定職業(yè)準備。一些教育工作者認為，高等教育的宗旨不符。餐飲業(yè)的經(jīng)濟利益，而是他們認為，高等教育的目的是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的自學(xué)能力，并培養(yǎng)他們成為有見地，反射和關(guān)鍵的思想的人。在這個問題上意見不同的教育世界。作為一名教育工作者，斯蒂芬鋼坯建議在高等教育工作經(jīng)驗，整合協(xié)調(diào)，爭議。他在他的“共建高等教育”高等教育研究發(fā)表在整合工作經(jīng)驗的教育價值，說明整合基于實踐經(jīng)驗，在高等教育的教育價值，并提出了某些類型的課程和教學(xué)實踐，以確保這次教育值得的。
This article of Stephen Billet is beneficial for the higher education in China. Since the implementation of reform and opening-up policy, China has drawn its emphasis on economic development. There are also some arguments on educational reform. Graduates are expected to immediately and effectively adapt themselves to new professional settings, while some comprehensive universities still insist on the teaching of humanities and adaptable knowledge. Through effectively integrating work experiences in higher education, graduates might be prepared as both practical and critical employees. By translating this article from English into Chinese can benefit for educational institutions and educators in China.#p#分頁標題#e#
斯蒂芬鋼坯的這篇文章是有利于中國的高等教育。自實施改革開放政策以來，中國已制定了其對經(jīng)濟發(fā)展的重點。教育教學(xué)改革也有一些爭論。畢業(yè)生預(yù)計將立即和有效地適應(yīng)新的專業(yè)設(shè)置，而一些綜合性的大學(xué)仍然堅持在教學(xué)中的人文和適應(yīng)性強的知識。通過有效整合工作經(jīng)驗，在高等教育，畢業(yè)生可能準備作為兼具實用和關(guān)鍵員工。從英語到中文翻譯這篇文章，可以受益于中國的教育機構(gòu)和教育工作者。
1.2 Tex Analyses
1.2 TEX分析
Text-type and Readership
文字型及讀者
The source text is an academic dissertation about integrating work experiences in higher education. According to Chinese scholar Ji Rong Qin, “學(xué)術(shù)dissertation是較為專門和系統(tǒng)的研究自然或社會問題的議論類文章，是對自然或社會現(xiàn)象進行科學(xué)研究和探索發(fā)現(xiàn)的書面描述”（紀蓉琴 2006）,the style of the source text is discussion. It follows the method of “question-analysis-solution”, with emphasis on academic concepts (such as “vocation”, “integrating practice-based experiences”, and “dispositional knowledge”), supporting theories, logical argument and connectives.
源文本整合工作經(jīng)驗，在高等教育的學(xué)術(shù)dissertation。據(jù)中國學(xué)者秦吉融， 2006年），源文本風(fēng)格的討論。它遵循“問題分析解決方案”的方法，強調(diào)學(xué)術(shù)概念（如“天職” ， “整合基于實踐經(jīng)驗” ， “傾向性知識” ） ，支持理論，邏輯論證和連接詞。讀者的源文本是教育工作者在高等教育，高等教育研究學(xué)者和管理人員的高等教育機構(gòu)，其母語或第二語言是英語。譯者的判斷的主要依據(jù)是教育的概念經(jīng)常使用的文字，如“高等教育” ， “大學(xué)” ， “職業(yè)教育” ， “課程與教學(xué)活動” 。預(yù)期的目標讀者是在高等教育，高等教育研究學(xué)者和管理人員的高等教育機構(gòu)，其母語或第二語言是中國的教育。這些讀者通常有較高的教育背景和學(xué)術(shù)素養(yǎng)。在高等教育和學(xué)術(shù)dissertation的特點，他們可以理解的基本概念。
The intended readers of the source text are educators in higher education, scholars on the study of higher education, and managers of the higher educational institutions, whose mother tongue or second language is English. The main bases of the translator’s judgement are the concepts on education frequently used in the text, such as “higher education”, “universities”, “occupational education”, “curriculum and pedagogic activities”. The intended target readers are educators in higher education, scholars on the study of higher education, and managers of the higher educational institutions, whose mother tongue or second language is Chines. Those readers usually have a higher educational background and academic literacy. They can understand the basic concepts in higher education and the features of the academic dissertation.#p#分頁標題#e#
寄存器是根據(jù)韓禮德和R.哈桑， “這是典型的相關(guān)情境的功能配置 - 具有特定值的領(lǐng)域，模式和男高音......” （ Net.1 ）的語言特點。字段是“總的事件，包括在其中的文本的功能，連同目的的活動者或作者的主題事項作為元素” （ Net.1 ）之一。模式為“事件中的文本的功能，包括通道所采取語言 - 口頭或書面，即席或準備 - 其體裁，修辭模式，為敘事，說教式的，有說服力的......” （ Net.1 ） 。男高音是指“之類的角色互動，對相關(guān)社會關(guān)系的集合，永久和臨時的，其中的參與者” （ Net.1 ） 。基于這三個值中的寄存器字段，模式和男高音的定義，可以分析源文本如下：
Register
According to M.A.K Halliday and R. Hasan, register is “the linguistic features which are typically associated with a configuration of situational features - with particular values of the field, mode and tenor…” (Net.1). Field is “the total event, in which the text is functioning, together with the purposive activity of the speaker or writer; includes subject-matter as one of the elements” (Net.1). Mode is “the function of the text in the event, including both the channel taken by language - spoken or written, extempore or prepared, - and its genre, rhetorical mode, as narrative, didactic, persuasive…” (Net.1). The Tenor refers to “the type of role interaction, the set of relevant social relations, permanent and temporary, among the participants involved” (Net.1). Based on the definitions of the three values of register- field, mode and tenor, the source text can be analysis as follows:
Field: In the source text, the author illustrates the educational worth of integrating work experiences in higher education and puts forward the specific measures and advices; It is an argumentative article whose function is to convince the reader, mainly expressed in lexis and semantic field, such as the repetition of “higher education”, “integrating work experiences”, “vocation”, “occupation”, “work”, “curriculum”, and so on.#p#
Mode: The source text is an academic paper published in an authoritative magazine. Its medium of transmission is in the written form. It’s formal, objective, and specialized, which is mainly shown in the syntactic features: extensive use of compound sentences, inanimate words as the subject (e.g. “vocations”, “these curriculum and pedagogic activities”), passive voice (e.g. “It is proposed that……”, “Offered here is……”), and so on. Published on the specialized academic magazine, this article limits its reader to the professional; consequently, it cannot get timely feedback.
Tenor: The author of the source text is an educator of Griffith University of Australia. The majority of the target readers, as well as the source readers, are educators in higher education, scholars on the study of higher education, and managers of the higher educational institutions, who are familiar with this subject field. They are expected to be influenced by or even adopt the advices discussed in the dissertation.
Cohesion
Baker (1992) mentions that: “cohesion is the network of surface relations which link words and expressions to other words and expressions in a text…” (P. 218). In this case, on the level of discourse, the prominent feature of the cohesion is to extensive use of the references and conjunctions, such as “it”, “these”, “those”, and “yet”, “however”, “therefore”, “nevertheless”, etc.
ⅡTranslation Issues and Strategies
2.1 Translation Issues
According to the definition of technical translation by Wright & Wright, Jr. on Scientific and Technical Translation, “Technical translation… encompasses the translation of special language texts i.e., texts written using Languages for Special Purposes (LSP). As such, technical translation (and “technical terminology” as well) includes not only the translation of texts in engineering or medicine, but also such disciplines as economic, psychology and law” (1993:1). It suggests that this academic dissertation on the educational worth of integrating work experiences in higher education belongs to the technical paper. It has the features of the technical language: large amount of terminologies, high frequency of passive forms, nominalisation, and complex long sentences. Because of the culture gap and the different kinds of language code between English and Chinese, many translation issues arise during the translation exercise. The major translation issues are divided into three levels: lexical, syntactic and textual. #p#分頁標題#e#
Lexical Level
w Terminology
According to Newmark, terminology takes up about 5-10% of a technical text (1988: 151). The amount of technical terms in the current ST is almost 5%. As research in childhood stuttering in Hong Kong and the mainland of China is limited, there are very few up to date Chinese parallel texts available as reference material. In addition, a lot of the widely recognised English terminologies do not have an equivalent Chinese translation.
w Superordinates and Hyponyms
Another issue is the non-equivalent use of superordinates and hyponyms. This occurs when the ST uses more generic terms and the TT uses more specific terms to refer to the same concept. Annotations 4 and 14 explain how the literal translation of the word ‘child/children’ is too general for the TT.
w Nominalisation
Nominalisation is a common translation issue when translating an English ST into Chinese. ‘在普通英語中用動詞表達的內(nèi)容, 科技英語中常用名詞表達…這種名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)簡潔、結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊… 省卻過多的主謂結(jié)構(gòu)’ (Wang 1989: 39). Annotations 13 and 27 illustrate this translation issue.
Syntactic Level
w Voice
Wang believes that there are three reasons for the frequent use of the passive voice in English technical texts. Firstly, sometimes, in technical research, the result is more important than who carries out the action, ‘科技作者探討事物的發(fā)展過程和闡述科學(xué)原理時, 往往著眼於演繹論證的結(jié)果, 而不大考慮動作的實行者.’ (1989: 32-33). Secondly, the passive voice gives a sense of objectiveness and thirdly, the passive voice can help to make the sentence more succinct (1989: 33). However, the passive voice is rarely used in Chinese. Thus, it is sometimes necessary to convert the passive voice in the ST into the active voice in the TT. Annotations 5, 6 and 8 are examples of translation issues involving the use of the passive voice. #p#分頁標題#e#
w Adverbial Clause
This is another example of non-equivalent syntactical features between the ST and the TT. Adverbial clauses are used very frequently in the ST as they are an efficient way of organising information and expressing logic (Liu 1997: 347). Annotation 18 is an example of a translation issue which involves adverbial clause in the ST.
w Compound Sentence
English technical texts tend to use a lot of compound sentences. Annotations 28 and 30 illustrate this issue. When translating compound sentences into Chinese, literal translation does not work. This is because Chinese technical texts tend to express ideas in a linear way with shorter clauses or sentences.
Textual Level
w Formality
‘The formality of a text is a measure of the attention the writer gives to the structuring of the message. Greater attention leads to more care in writing and this marks the text as possessing a higher degree of formality and signals a more distant relationship … between writer and reader.’ (Bell 1991: 186) There is non-equivalence between the address system in the ST and the one in the TT. In Chinese academic texts, the author avoids reference to himself as ‘I’ or ‘my’, ‘筆者’ or ‘筆者的’ is used instead. In the ST, the author uses ‘I’ or ‘my’ throughout the whole text. Adjustments therefore have to be made in the TT so that the level of formality meets the target reader’s expectation.
w Coherence
Coherence transcends lexical and syntactic levels. It is about ‘a network of relations which organize and create a text’ (Baker 1992: 218). In the ST, pronouns are often used to prevent the text from becoming too wordy. Also, SL readers can infer the network of relations. However, in the TT, coherence will be lost if too many pronouns are used. TL readers expect to know what specific items the author is referring to. Annotation 12 illustrates how the translation of pronouns from the ST to the TT becomes an issue. Coherence is also about how the information is presented in such a way that is logical to the target readers. English technical texts use a large number of compound sentences. Readers are expected to infer the underlying logical relations and coherence between the translation units. However, Chinese technical texts tend to use much shorter sentences to deliberate logic. As a result of this non-equivalence, when translating compound sentences from E to C, connectives, punctuation and extra words have to be added to the TT so that the coherence of the text is assured (see Annotations 17 and 21).
w Culture Specific Examples
Gerzymisch-Arbogast notes the issue of quoting examples in technical translation, ‘the translation of examples is often complicated by the fact that they are culture specific. They can only fulfil their function of providing the reader with “given” information, i.e., illustrative purposes, if the reader can relate to the quoted example.’ (Wright & Wright, Jr. 1993: 39). In the ST, the author quotes a number of examples of speech disfluencies (ST: L159). The problem is that the examples are based on English phrases. These examples are much less relevant to Chinese clinicians or researchers. Therefore, it is necessary to add a translator’s note to clarify the fact that the examples quoted are only for English target readers.
