英國社會文化專業留學dissertationthesis

摘要 Abstract

本研究的目的是觀察和解釋消費者在利物浦選擇非洲食物時的個人偏好。通過分析對非洲食物的態度和看法,評估在城市內影響這些食品可用性和可訪問性的不同因素,及全球化進程對糧食生產和消費的影響。這項研究運用了三種不同的理論：理性行動理論,計劃行為理論,演員網絡理論和消費理論。全球生產網絡,旨在識別將非洲食物運往英國的過程中所涉及的地理空間性的網絡過程。演員網絡理論用于在全球生產網絡中解釋不同的演員。理性行動理論和計劃行為理論用于本研究主要是用于解釋消費者對非洲食物的態度、偏好和行為。但是發現非洲消費者傾向于非洲傳統食物，這主要是受到成本、時間和距離的影響。
 

定性和定量相結合的研究方法被用來更好的解釋結果。本研究共采訪了來自不同城市的150名受訪者,包括學生、年輕人家庭等，跨越不同的年齡組。對非洲食品商店和餐館所有者進行的采訪使用結構化和半結構化面試。個人隨機選擇,來驗證對非洲食物的興趣。
 

The aim of this research is to observe and explain consumers' preference for African food in Liverpool. By identifying the attitudes towards African food, evaluating the different factors that affect the availability and accessibility of these foods within the city, the effect of globalisation processes on food production to consumption. Three different theories have been used in this research, the Theory of Reason Action, Theory of Planned Behaviour, the Actor Network Theory and the theory of consumption. The global production network which seeks to identify the geographical spatiality involved in the network process of crossing African foods to UK. The actor-network theory is used to explain the different actors/actants in the global production network. The theories of reasoned action and theory of planned behaviour used in this research intends to explain consumer attitude, preference and behaviour towards African foods. It is however observed that African consumers tend to prefer African traditional meals but this is affected by cost, time and distance.
 

A combination of qualitative and quantitative research method is used to better interpret the outcomes of the result. A total of 150 respondents where interviewed from various part of the city, including students, young adults family etc. Cutting across different age groups. Owners of African food stores and restaurants were interviewed using both structured and semi-structured interview. Individuals were selected randomly, to verify interest in African foods.
 

Chapter 1

Introduction

The importance of food as a necessity of life goes beyond physical nourishment. Anthropologist and sociologist emphasize that food practices are prime means through which social relationships are formed. (Johnston et al 2006:272). A familiar saying goes “we are what we eat”; food links us to the rituals and recipes of previous generations, creating a network between families, wider communities, and the global trading network of producers, distributors and consumers. More so, we are transported into the world of others as we experience the tastes of unknown tradition and cultures. Food choices make profound impact on the environment, health and welfare of others, challenging the ideas of tradition and identity. Travel and immigration have also resulted in the changing and shifting of traditions over the years. National identities have been created also by food traditions in distant lands among people of similar culture and background. Food is an indicator of cultural traditions, values, and how food traditions develop and evolve over space and time. Much talk of globalisation of foods have helped in shaping traditions, cultural diversity, social and political economy of places, (Bernstein et al 1990: 9, Tinker 1997: 137, 143) however, not all kinds of food are very welcomed in some places, though may not be stated categorically, it can be observed within cities and communities most probably as result of economic policies, cultural differences, international trading policies.#p#分頁標題#e#
 

Traditional food is a vital aspect of the African cultural heritage. The production processing sale and distribution of food products enhances cultural and ethnic coherence in communities. Consumers demand for safe and tasteful traditional food products (Cayot, 2007). However, there is also a demand for varieties of ethnic foods in multi-ethnic cities and community.


The definition of food encompasses matters of moral and cultural significance, differentiating food products, providers and consumers (Cook et al 1996). Food has always had a long history of constructed associations which involves associations of places and people, and has been used as emblem of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995).
 

Johnston et al claim that there is no single geographical literature on food with its own coherent themes and problematic, as the study of food is found in economic, political, cultural, social and biological aspects of geography. Therefore food matter does not sit within the confinement of conceptual and spatial boundaries (Johnston 2006: 272).
 

Key issues surrounding topic

The speed and reach of globalisation, travel and trade, bring all kinds of diverse foods together. This has however affected the definitions of particular national food culture (Murray). The influence of travel and migration can be seen on major streets and cities in United Kingdom with a rich mixture of nationalities, Indian curry houses, Jewish Bagel shops, Chinese buffets restaurant, Italian restaurant, Mexican among others. However, the presence of African food restaurants seems not a loud as the others considering the long standing history of Blacks in the city.
 

The absence of physical representation of the African food culture around the city especially in everyday cultural display such as in food, as compared to the Asian presence of Chinese, Indian, Thai, Mexican cuisines and other ethnic group in Liverpool raises questions of demand and supply.
 

The most important representation so far is the International Slavery museum at the docks and black slave sculptures that are displayed around historical places in the city, which are only representations of past history and geography and not a total representation of the African culture in recent times.
 

Ethnic minority consumers' quest for cultural identity is perceived in the food culture of the group in concern. Commercial globalisation has renewed interest in the relationship between culture and traditional norms and values (James 1890). This pursuit for identity among most migrants to the western world is pronounced in their choice of food (Bauman2000).
 

This research seeks to observe trends in African consumer behaviour and attitude toward African food in United Kingdom, using Liverpool as a case study. In trying to observe and evaluate these trends, certain issues have provided a background for this study, one of which is the re-materializing of postcolonial geographies as it affects Africans in a foreign country. African migrants' attitude and food choice behaviour have been affected by certain factors, government and institutional policies of cutting across various levels of trading activities.#p#分頁標題#e#
 

In determining a consumers' preference towards food related behaviours, convenience, as a food attribute, has been described as being as important as taste, health and price (Candel, 2001). However, the availability and accessibility of food influence consumers preference as different values are considered in understanding why consumers make certain food choice. Food choice is a complex phenomenon with many interacting events determining which foods are eaten by the individual at a particular time and place. (Shepherd 1989.)


The failure of African foods to cross over into United Kingdom mainstream market has pointed to issues of production, preservation and transportation of African foods into the United Kingdom. International trade policies and barriers by OECD countries, farm subsidies have all been major setbacks to the availability of African food stuff in the United Kingdom.
 

Chapter 1 literature review: theories of consumer perception,

Chapter 2 how do Africans perceive African foods and other foods, what do Africans think about the origin of their food and the patriotic nature of Africans towards their food, the first experience of food, generational experience of food.

Chapter 3 methodology: theories of research methods.

Chapter 4 results historical background of liverpool

Chapter 5 result and discussions: background history of black Liverpool, map and population census 2001 of Africans in Liverpool, identifying African business and

Questionnaires and interview analysis,

Chapter 6 trade relations between African countries and UK
 

CHAPTER 2:

LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review looks at the studies that have been done in areas of food preference as it concerns culture, food identity, food preference and quality. The second section will review theories employed in the research and the importance of global production networks.
 

Catherine Dolan and John Humphrey (2000) used Global commodity chain as networks where the decision-maker influences the output of chains and composition governance in their paper ‘governance and trade in fresh vegetables'. Their study does not recognise the identity of commodity and consumer as a factor in buyer driven commodity, evaluating the geography of space. This research explores the ethnic identity of consumer as a major actor in global commodity chain networks. The buyers themselves being of African nationality purchase food stuff from the local food store or African food restaurants which receive their supplies from importers of African foods in major cities like London and Manchester. The connection therefore is from the African farmers who grow the foods, to major exporter or importer as the case maybe, to the shelves food store and tables of the restaurant then consumed by Africans who live several miles away from their home country. The cultural identity of the consumers becomes a vital connection to the market, because consumers also make demand on the desired food choice. Consumers' access to these foods becomes important to the continuity of this trade. Ben Fine (1993) defines commodity chains as “the commodity-specific chain connecting production, distribution, marketing and consumption and material culture surrounding these elements”, in the study of systems of provision (fine 1993:600). This approach acknowledges the importance of commodities as a possibility of more balanced treatment of the relationship between production and consumption (Crewe 2000). Studies have explored how networks of embedded firms are offering the potential for the more equitable relations between retailer and suppliers, through the sharing of knowledge as market intelligence and labour. (Crewe 1996, Scott 1996, Crewe and Beaverstock 1998). Other study have considered the creative dimension of domestic consumption, and the ways in which consumer goods are actively appropriated in the everyday spaces of the home, however, Domosh examines the reclamation of the home and the domestic space as key consumption site. But it does not take into account the origin of the commodities and how it relates to space for consumption (Domosh 1998).#p#分頁標題#e#


Cook and Crang, explore ways in which geographical knowledge about products invoke a “double commodity fetishism”. This is the idea in which consumer knowledge are limited by spatially distanciated systems of provision. (Laying emphasis on geographical knowledge about widely sources of food commodities and process through which food is supplied). This work highlights cultural means of places and spaces. Cook and Crang (1996), further explores the global extensive networks and flows of food, people and culinary knowledge embedded in cosmopolitan London. Suggesting that “cultural mosaic” (Friedman, 1994), conceptualise cultural geographies as bounded cultural regions where constructed associations between food, places and peoples, associations epitomising the conceptions of national, regional and local cuisines. Also describes food as emblems and markers of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995).
 

Cook et al (1998), in seeking the articulation of the geographies of culture looks at how figure displacement can be used to suggest process of food consumption are cast as local, the connections of food consumption to networks, which extend beyond delimiting boundaries of particular places. Again, in a closely related study, Cook reflects on the biography and geographies of food. A definition of food as having their own biographies, studies the connection of consumer knowledge about the geographical origins of the food they consume and what roles it plays in food choice and consumption (Cook et al 1998). He concludes in a suggestion that knowledge can potentially be a significant factor in food choice and preference.
 

Much research has been done on Caribbean foods within and outside United Kingdom, probably due to the influx of Caribbean foods into United Kingdom market in the mid 1990's, when it became the ethnic cuisine to go mainstream after the Chinese, Indian and Tex Mex (Cook et al 2003). The complex history of the Caribbean's produced a regional cuisine which had overlapped with the Indian and Chinese foods that were on top of international cuisines in the United Kingdom. The region had also become tourist centres to Europeans and a large interest of the Caribbean lifestyle and delicacies reflected on the shelves of UK supermarkets, in addition to the projected images by celebrity chefs, and companies who increased the exports to satisfy the demand of this market in the mid nineties (Cook et al 2003). This also reflected in Caribbean centres established in major cities and streets in the UK.
 

Cook and Harrison examine debate over the failure of Caribbean food to cross over into the UK mainstream. The paper review mosaic and theories of culture as fundamental difference between a white “mainstream” and black “ethnic other” as part problems of this failure. (Cook and Harrison 2003). Understandings of postcolonial geographies of material culture and its contributions to the undermining of, and resistance to forms of colonial dominations that persist in contemporary global capitalist relationships as can be found in food trade relations between the ‘third world' and the ‘west'. The study uses the example of the corporate history of Grace, Kennedy and Co, a company that preferred to cater for the needs of UK ethnic minority and the third world consumers, instead of prioritising cross over in to UK mainstream market.#p#分頁標題#e#


Friedberg research of modern historical geography of food in Burkina Faso shows how agricultural policies, dietary preferences health concerns, helped to transform regional diet, landscape and economy, resulting to temporal and spatial patterns of daily life in Burkina Faso. The study observes the incorporation of Burkina Faso into the globalised market economy as a result of luxury food (French beans), not leaving out the expectation of food quality safety standards (Friedberg 2003). The study also observes the changing geographies of the meaning of food, suggesting how historical study of food consumption takes place outside formal market economy.
 

Gaps in current research

Studies on firms by management oriented researchers have been focused more on companies in developed economies, central and Eastern Europe, small and local food production firms in Africa and their business counterparts even in developed economies have received less attention in the study of economic development. Past researches remained outside social science mainstream therefore have not been influenced by general discourses especially in the field of economic geography. Feminist researchers who have done research in the developing world have only concentrated on gender-related issues in the developing nations rather than with broader questions of small, local and industrial organisations and economic development (Henderson et al 2002:437).
 

The major issues of trade liberalization have affected the cross over of African food and with the increase of safety standard procedures by the UK govt.
 

The challenges of small business and the cost of food as also other major issues that will be discussed.
 

In examining the geographical knowledge about food, actors associated with food, which involves location and situatedness of food, the networks and flows of food and people are major debates around the accessibility of these foods. According to Cook et al the long-running history of interconnections between people and places; and the increasing consciousness of the compression of the economic, political, cultural world, and the production of the world as a single place are two major contentions of globalisation debates (Cook et al 1996). London is said to be promoted as a space of ‘global post-modern' (Hall, 1991: 32) by the staging and reconstruction of cultural difference in ‘globalisation diversity' (Pieterse, 1995:45 as cited Cook 1996), arguably, Liverpool being proclaimed as the ‘world in one city' though with characteristic history of local culture is yet to produce a matching representation of modern diversity of the African culture with the exception of the International Slavery museum. Post colonial issues around African cultural heritage in Liverpool will enhance globalisation diversity as represented in food, arts and cultural of the African food biography and origin.#p#分頁標題#e#
 

Global Production networks

Global production networks emphasize the need to refocus attention on the social circumstances under which commodities are produced and consumed” (Dickens et al 2002 pg 444). It takes into account, the process of production-(can be from the farm stage, harvest, labour technology, processing in Africa, transportation, UK standardization, repackaging, supply and distribution,) which do not always follow a chain link but a complex network process, over time and space and distance to consumption. The GPN framework allows for a greater complexity and geographical variation in producer-consumer relation, this in turn enhances the ability to reveal how certain key knowledge ‘circulate' between producers, consumers and intermediaries. It also reveals complex social geographies as agents located in different places can be seen to combine to influence the production process (Henderson et al 2002:445).
 

In all, this research seeks to answer the following questions

• Research Questions?

To what extent does the demand of African food affect its availability?

What impact does African food trade make on the supply of these foods?

How have African food stores and restaurants faired with migration of Africans in Liverpool?
 

Preference is described by Babicz-Zielinska as “a general predisposition for a particular food, independent of the eating situation, and expressed by degree of liking or disliking of the food, desired food frequency or fraction of subjects selecting the food as a response to its name”(Babicz-Zielinska 1999:139). The choice of food depends on factors that influence human behaviour, which in turn affects the rejection of some food and acceptance of others. A classification based on current food-choice models is used to explain certain attributes of food choice is made by Babicz-Zielinska (Babicz-Zielinska 1999:138)
 

1. Production-related factors- which could be physical and chemical properties of food, sensory attributes, functional features(labelling, availability) nutritional value; or

2. Consumer-related factors- personal features, (age, gender, psychological factors, experience, personality), physiological factors (health) or

3. Environment-related factors- economic factors (price and income), cultural factors (beliefs, social factors- social status and fashion.
 

Consumer-related factors and environment-related factors will be area of concern in this research. Factors of food choice survey was conducted in European Community EC countries, and it showed that quality/freshness, taste, selecting a healthy diet, price, family preferences and habits belong to the most important choice factors, (Lennernas et al 1997)
 

Behavioural research methodologies are usually used to ascertain the underlying factors that determine food-related behaviour, reason being that food choice and consumption are natural and integrated part of human behaviour (Mahon et al 2006:474).#p#分頁標題#e#
 

The theory of reasoned action

The theory of reasoned action has received attention within the field of consumer behaviour. (Sheppard et al 1988). The theory of reasoned action studies attitude and behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein 1980). It observes behavioural intention, attitude and subjective norm. According to Fishbein and Ajzen, a person's behaviour is guided by the person's attitude towards the behaviour and the subjective norm. For example, Africans tend to eat hot, spicy and tasty food, so when they find themselves away from ‘home', they look for their regular food, or something very close to the kind of food they have been used to, the alternative in this case could mean the Caribbean cuisine which also has its origin from African foods, or the Spanish or Mexican spicy foods as found in UK. However the cost also plays a determining role in making food choice, this shall be explained in detail in later chapter.
 

Miller 2005 defines attitude, subjective norm, and behavioural intentions as the 3 components of the theory of reasoned action.

Attitude:

The sum of beliefs about a particular behaviour weighted by evaluation of these beliefs.

Subjective norms.

This looks at the influence of people in one's social environment on his/her behavioural intentions.

Behavioural intention.

This is a function of both attitudes towards behaviour and subjective norms towards that behaviour which has been found to predict actual behaviour.
 

The theory of planned behaviour is adopted to explain consumer behaviour towards African food. The other alternative in this research is the British food, considering different factors that affect the choice of food. Human behaviour is explained and predicted by the theory of planned behaviour in understanding beliefs and attitudes. Ajzen et al 1986, explains that TPB is an extension of the TRA. The theory of planned behaviour was developed as a third predictor of behaviour, perceived behavioural control, (Mahon et al 2006:475). Perceived behavioural control reflects beliefs regarding the access to resources and opportunities needed to perform a behaviour (Chiou, 1998 as cited in Mahon 2006 pg 475). The availability of resources needed to engage in the behaviour such as money, time and other resources, the focal person self confidence in their ability to conduct the behaviour are two major reflections of the theory of planned behaviour.


The theory of consumer preference.

Consumers have set of preferences which are dependent upon individual tastes, education, culture and other factors, apart from the economic factor. These factors are measured for particular goods in terms of the real opportunity cost to the consumer who purchases and consumes the goods. Consumer level of satisfaction of a particular kind of food is determined by what the consumer defines as “satisfaction”. However, consumers are constrained in their choices of foods by income, accessibility of goods and also the price that the consumer is willing to pay for his food.#p#分頁標題#e#
 

Consumer preferences are defined as the subjective taste as measured by utility-(where utility is the satisfaction that a consumer derives from the consumption of a good) of various bundles of goods. Preferences help consumer to prioritize bundles of goods according to the levels of utility that they give the consumer. However, these preferences are not dependent on income and prices only. The ability for a consumer to purchase certain kind of food does not always determine a consumer's like or dislike over another food. For example, an African consumer in Liverpool can have a preference for African foods over British foods but only has the financial means to buy British meals more often. There are certain assumptions of consumers' preference theory, which will be further looked into, the assumption of decisiveness, consistency, non-satiation, convexity.
 

Actor network theory.

ANT, a social theory pioneered by Michel Callon (1986), Bruno Latour (1987) and John Law (1987), conceptualize social interactions in terms of networks. This includes the material environment and human causes. The concept of ANT acknowledges the importance of both material and human factors in networks. The theory conveys the idea that the actor does not act ‘on his own' but only under the influence of complex network of material and human influences. For example, the process involved in making African foods available is not just caused human factors, but also by production, technology, society, extended politics of trade and culture, all affecting the accessibility and availability of the foods. According to Callon (1986) materials causes as well as human actors may be determinants of the social interactions and outcomes (Callon 1986). According to Henderson 2002, ANT emphasize the relationality of object and agency in heterogeneous networks, in other words, entities in networks are shaped by and can only be understood through their relations and connectivity to other entities(Law, 1999:4 as cited in Henderson et al 2002). Again, space and distance are observed as ‘spatial fields' and relational scopes of influence, power and connectivity (Harvey, 1969; Murdoch 1998 as cited in Henderson et al 2002).
 

According to Nancy Vanhouse, ANT has to approaches, ‘follow the actor', through interviews and ethnographic research and through examining inscriptions.
 

Inscriptions - including texts, but also images of many sorts, databases, and the like -- are central to knowledge work. Some (e.g., Latour and Woolgar, 1991; Callon, Law, and Rip, 1986) say that texts (including journal articles, conference papers and presentations, grant proposals, and patents) are among the major, if not the major, products of scientific work. Inscriptions make action at a distance possible by stabilizing work in such a way that it can travel across space and time and be combined with other work.
 

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Texts are also central to the process of gaining credibility. They carry work to other people and institutions. They attempt to present work in such a way that its meaning and significance are irrefutable. And texts are where authors establish equivalences among problems, which Callon et al. (1986) identifies as a major strategy of enrolling others. An important part of the standard journal article or grant application, for example, is to say, in essence, "If you are interested in X (major issue) you must be interested in Y, which is the topic of the work reported/proposed here."
 

References Latour, B. and Woolgar, S. (1991). Laboratory life: the construction of scientific facts, intro by Salk, J., Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press

Callon, Michel, John Law, and Arie Rip, eds. Mapping the Dynamics of Science and Technology: Sociology of Science in the Real World. London: Macmillan Press, 1986.

Actor network theory has become very helpful in understanding connections between places and space. Its insistency on non human factor in network production ......

Supply chain and bottleneck bureaucracy of the supply of food products from Africa into the UK makes it more difficult for the availability of this food. This furthermore widens the distance/gap between consumers and suppliers/retailers. The length of this chain affects....

The quality assurance schemes, production and manufacturing to retailer's protocols and the application of quality management system and standard such as HACCP and ISO series are various ways of cutting supplies.

Bottlenecks of food quality and safety standards in food processing and distribution.
 

The HACCP systems are used in specific export sectors in Africa, an example is the EU quality standard for fish in Uganda is based on EU directive 91/493/EEC and on Codex Alimentarius (Trienekens et al 2008:116) covering areas of microbiology level, pesticides residues, heavy metals, effluents, Good manufacturing practices (processing stage) and HACCP (processing stage) (Ssemwanga, 2003 as cited in Trienekens et al 2008:116). Kenya adheres to UK food and safety Act of 1990, more so testing laboratories are accredited to ISO 17025; 2000 by United Kingdom Accreditation services (UKAS) (Kari 2003), the high deportation rate of this products on western markets shows the fragility of the systems. As pesticides residues are discovered in the product. Other systems used for processors and packers of fish for exports are GMP, ISO 90002. The proliferation of standards by western markets creates a barrier for the application of standards by developing countries producers. The lack of enabling environment in which infrastructure facilities are absent in African countries is also a major setback. African countries are still discovering quality and safety of food as important condition for international food trade (Trieneken et al 2008:117). Building of facilities, government structures to improve and ensure quality and safety of products are still key agenda of attention. The importance of transportation, preservation (cooled system of transport) and storage are very vital to international trade. African countries are still at the phase of establishing the right conditions to enforce food quality and safety of the other products.#p#分頁標題#e#


According to Trieneken et al- many developing countries do not have skilled labour and laboratory facilities, this however limits good- quality management, making difficult. Small and medium size business, from developing countries find difficult or almost impossible to comply with standard required in western markets (Dinham, 2003, Unnevehr, 2002). Due to barriers created by SPS and TBT in exporting foods, from developing countries do not have the adequate information and most likely unaware of specific demand of western standards for trade. The heterogeneous standard in developed economies also poses a problem, as continues differ to country and market also differ. The cost of certification is too much for develop countries to bear.
 

Most African food products are unable to adapt to the rigorous requirements of modern supply chain, either through scale enterprise or lack of knowledge or financial constraints, become non-competitive. The myriad of innovations and development has made the process of food supply chain increase in productivity.
 

The combine technology of accurate weighing, refrigeration controlled atmospheric bacterial growth inhibition, pasteurisation, micro-element pollutant detection, bar-coding, electronic recognition of packaging, the use of stabilizers etc, has also contributed to the difficulty in having African food cross over, as most business may not be financially equipped enough for the volume of the trading.
 

Christopher (1999) notes that the supply chain management evolves around the partnership developed in the chain and is supported by information technology applications that co-ordinate information dissemination and sharing amongst the chain members.
 

This research has revealed that most home cooked food are prepared under high hygienic conditions, as cooking is monitored by consumer themselves problems with calories consumptions that affect the health of consumer is also under check, compared to the perceptions about eating fast food at convenience KFC and MacDonalds. This is one reason for the preference of African food among black consumer.
 

One of the major problems of availability of African foods in UK is the problem of access into the country. Developing countries especially in Africa find it difficult to meet the food safety standards imposed by the UK/developing countries. Food safety standards which were originally set up to keep food for quality and safe consumption, by government of different countries are being used as trade impeding protectionist tools.(Jongwanich 2009:1). Food safety standards are usually to the disadvantage of developing countries, due to their limits capacity to access and use technology and information. International trade negotiations have experience setbacks for developing countries in recent years due to a demand for more stringent SPS in developed countries, which is as a result of increase in health consciousness and rising incomes. Before now, tariffs and quantitative restrictions are the trade barriers and impediments that affect export from developing countries to developed countries, but in recent times, food safety standards have become tool for protectionist to block trade(Jongwanich 2009:2). According to united nations commodity trade database, the share of processed food exports in the total world food export increased from 44% in 1980 to 63% in 2006. This increase has been attributed to mainly developing countries. Processed food exports in developing countries triples between 1980-2006 while developed countries remained stable (fig 2). More importantly is the fact that this increase came from upper and middle income developing countries, leaving low income countries to African where only 4% of the world processed food export come from.#p#分頁標題#e#


CHAPTER 3

Methodology

Theory for my methodology : Grounded theory

Different theories have been developed for the purpose of qualitative research methodology for various disciplines. I have used the Grounded theory in this research as it is known to be suitable for research in interaction and behaviour. Grounded Theory is appropriate for consumer research (Goulding 2002:1) as this is the area of concern for this study.
 

Grounded theory was developed by Barney Glaser and Anslem Straus (1967), both of whom are sociologist. The theory was originally developed for sociologist but its principles make it applicable to various disciplines within and outside the field of sociology (Goulding 2000:38). Grounded theory acknowledges facts as based on enquiry and should be viewed as both theory laden and value-laden (Goulding 2000: 42). This theory permits the use of semi-structured interviews and open ended questions as I have used in this research. I have also used secondary data such as report provided by organisations, and journals in this research. For example, I have used data from the United Nations commodities trade of countries to present relevant information concerning that. I have also used report from the Office of National Statistics for the population census of Africans in Liverpool which provided me with important information.
 

Qualitative research method.

The methodology used for this research is the qualitative research methodology. This approach is used because, the principles of qualitative research has a good framework and is adequate for understanding of consumer personal experiences and preferences (Stake 1995).
 

Nelson et al define qualitative research as an interdisciplinary field which cuts across the humanities, the social sciences and the physical sciences (Nelson et al 1992:4). The qualitative researcher looks at people and settings as a whole and not as variables (Taylor & Bogdan 1984:6). In other words, qualitative research is committed to naturalistic perspective and interprets understandings of human experience. This approach is able to deal with subjective and complex nature of the subject (Martinez et al 2003:4).
 

Qualitative research method helps to understand the mind of the interviewer and also opens opportunity for interviewees' narration (Atkinson & Silverman 1997). Qualitative research according to Norman et al, locates the observer in the world using empirical materials such as personal experience, interview and case study, that describe means of certain events in individual lives ( Norman& Lincoln 2003:3). The use of ethnographic sources of data such as observations questionnaires and interviews are able to capture the perception of participants as stated by Martinez 2003. As in the case of this research, personal experience of interviewee help to better understand consumers feelings, or response, or reaction towards the availability of African foods in Liverpool. It gives a better understanding of the relationship between the consumer and retailer in this research and as Norman puts it, “qualitative research method stress the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between the research and what is studied, and the situational constraints that shape the inquiry” (Norman et al 2003:1), such that the value-laden nature of the inquiry can be emphasized. This helps to answer questions that stress how social experience is created and understood; in this case it helps to interpret the consumer's experience.#p#分頁標題#e#


Methods used and why?

The use of questionnaires

This method employed open-ended questions for questionnaires administered to both consumers and business owners. The open ended questions create a forum for the respondents to answer the questions in simple and short sentences. In some cases, a Yes or No answer was given for some of the questions.
 

According to Babbie (2004), it is important to test questionnaires before they are sent out t sample population, this is because errors will always occur no matter how careful a research designs his/her questionnaire (Babbie 2004). A test of self administered questionnaires was carried out with 10 students. It was done to streamline the questions. The student were give the questionnaires at different times and asked to fill in the shortest possible time, and to note if they understood all questions, and to put a questions mark where the question was not understood. The questions where re-analysed and changed in the actual questionnaire.
 

Interview

Interview is one of the most extensive ways of acquiring information today, such that it said that we live in an “interview society” (Atkinson & Silverman, 1997, Denzin & Lincoln 2003: 47). This qualitative approach lays more emphasis on individual rather than research with focus group. According to Denzin and Lincoln, the use of interviews create situated understanding which is grounded in particular communication. Interview is the art of asking questions and listening to answers (Denzin et al 2003:48).
 

Semi-structured interviews are set of questions already developed maybe from earlier research or knowledge about the subject topic. (Rothe 1993)
 

The semi structured interview approach was used to interview owners of African food stores and restaurants. This approach was used because the interviewees have complex stock of knowledge about the topic under discussion, which may sometimes be assumptions or true facts according to personal experience. The open ended questions help the interviewee to answer the questions as it is methodologically prompted by the interviewer (Flick U 1998: 82). In this case the questions were used to reconstruct the interviewee's subjective theory and knowledge (Flicker 1989:83).
 

The aim of using this method.

The aim of this method is to have an in depth knowledge of the issues concerning consumers patronage of already cooked food or raw food stuff and how it in turns affect the businesses. It is also aimed at evaluating the availability of these food within the city. Problems of cost of transportation and preservation where some of the highlights of the interview.
 

For the interviewer to better understand the interview through dialogue, the open ended questions were asked the interviewees as it creates the flexibility to follow through information in whatever direction seems to be proper, depending on what comes out from observing a particular situation or from talking to the interviewee. The open ended questions allowed the interviewees to relate personal accounts of their experience, by using their own words in explaining and describing (Valentine 1997).#p#分頁標題#e#
 

Interviewees explain the contradictions and complications of their experiences. The answers given by the interviewee help to raise even more questions that may not have occurred in the interviewers mind. For example, one of my interviews with the owner of an African food restaurant gave me in depth information about the reasons why the city has not made much progress in terms of the presence of African food business. My prior knowledge was from secondary information from journals, supposed past histories, but I had not thought of this reason as one of the problems encountered in having thriving businesses in Liverpool. This will be discussed at length in the results chapter. Since much attention has not been given to the problem. Semi structured interviews are flexible and detailed to provide as much information as the interviewer needs with no holds barred as long as it does not go against the ethics of the business or the research.


I found this method very helpful because all interviews were carried out in relaxed environment as it also helped me observe consumer activities during business hours.
 

Details on no of interviews

Considering the size of the research, and the availability of the prospective interviewees, a total number of six interviews was done. The choice of interviewee was categorized in two. 3 African food stores owners where interviewed and 3 African food restaurant owners were interviewed. A systematic selection of the location of the food stores and restaurant was done. One food store and restaurant located at the Liverpool City Centre. This covers for areas around the city centre which is densely populated known for various ethnic cuisines like the Chinese, Indian Portuguese, Italian etc. Another food store located on Granby street which was once know to accommodate most African food stores in Liverpool as result of the black community, the other set is located on Smithdown road which is also a densely populated area for food business, and the last set is located on Prescot road which also accommodates food business from different ethnic groups within the city.
 

Analysis

Interview with all business owners had been booked a week earlier before the interview day.
 

All interviews were carried out during business hours, as such in semi formal setting where business was still going on.
 

Time of interview: Interview with X took about 52minutes which was quite long an difficult to transcribe due to many digressions which may or may not be relevant to the research. Interview with Y took less time, about 30minutes, excluding time of serving customers. Interview with Z took 30minutes excluding time of serving customers. Interview with A took 20mins, B 10mins, and C 20minutes.
 

Questionnaire#p#分頁標題#e#

Data collection for the purpose of this research is both self administered and semi-structured interviews.
 

The questionnaires were administered to students, singles and families. A systematic approach was used to administer the questions. Five major regions of Africa where covered, the northern region, the central region, the southern region, the eastern region and the western regions of Africa. This was done in order get variety of sampled opinion.
 

Reflexive diary- Research diary.

A diary is the record of personal, unstructured daily events. Research diaries are not as conventional as the normal diaries thought the may contain certain characteristics of the normal diaries. Whilst the regular diary is typically private and unstructured, a documentation of daily event, the research diary is not private as they will ultimately be shared with the researcher (Hesse-Biber et al 2006:315). Research diaries consist of responses to closed ended questions or statements. They also include predetermined events, behaviour, emotional or physical states or thoughts which the researcher may have chosen (Hesse-Biber et al 2006:315). The individual's diary may be structured in some way to record the temporal dimension to the data. Research diaries are not always only completed at the end of the day, but as often as it is required to meet the goals of the research. Though the research diary rely on free text may be in the format of video diary or audio recordings of feelings, actions or perception and experience of certain events which most times is daily.


I have also used research diary in the form of a food diary as an additional method. It can be used both as a quantitative and qualitative research method.
 

The aim of this method

The aim of this method is to have a practical knowledge of the type of food eaten by African families in their own environment. This is studying people in their own territory (Willig 2001:9). This becomes helpful in collecting specific information about the choice of food especially from shopping women and mothers. It is used to collect information about behaviour that cannot be easily observed (e.g. meal pattern). It is also aimed at developing insight into the participants' behaviour that may not easily accessible by methods that involve interaction with them (Symon 2004). For example, it is may be difficult to get access to families as it may be time consuming or not within participants timing therefore adequate and honest information may not be given to researcher. Food choice may change over time especially with families. This method is aimed at exploring the possible relationship between participant's actions and observable sharp changes with time.
 

The process data collection.

The first step is to identify volunteers to participate in the data collection. 10 African mothers with at least one child were recruited. They come from different regions in Africa and have lived in Britain for a minimum of 2 years. 6 diaries were returned.#p#分頁標題#e#
 

A diary (notepad) was given to each participant with a pen. The diary was already structurally outlined, with dates and meal times written in form of a log book. A maximum of four week period was given for the period in which the diary was expected to be completed and returned. In this diary, the women, simply record the name of the food they eat at different times in the absence of the researcher. In a qualitative approach, participants reflexively report and question their experiences, thoughts and feelings and their interpretations of these (Symon 2004), the participants are expected to write what they have had for their meals in a subtle manner not necessarily with the feeling of being compelled to do that by the researcher. So that a good representation will be given.
 

So they are more relaxed to eat what they want and record it. The diary is structured in a repetitive manner in which the participant fills at different meal times (breakfast, lunch, dinner ) what the family had as their meal and participant may want to make comments about why they had that particular meal. This design is simple and makes it easy for participant to fill; deciding whether or not they would like to give explanations for the food eaten, that is, reasons for having this type of meal and not another. It is less demanding on the part of the participant.
 

Commitment and time constraint.

Time is a very sensitive factor in using this method. The time required for the research diary may result in participants skipping days. (Hesse-Biber et al 2006: 320). As observed in this research, time constraint terminated some participant's participation. As Hesse-Biber rightly puts it, even the most dedicated participants may have unexpected events and time constraints that will interrupt participation (Hesse-Biber et al 2006:320). 4 participants drop out because they could not keep up with the timing out of their busy schedule, moving out of town, and some out of lack of interest in the research.


A follow up was made on all participants using text messages; sometimes phone calls were made reminding them to fill the diary. Some mothers got their older children to fill the diary as a result of time constraint. Most of whom where excited to participate.
 

Duration

: This method involves the daily record keeping of food eaten by families for a period of four weeks, Three times daily or as many time as they eat.
 

Some advantages of research diary method

The diary method has advantages over the questionnaire and interview method in that, the diary method creates a sense of independence and control of the research from the participant's perspective. This method is used with other more interactive methods such as questionnaires and interviews that allow clarification and verification of patterns emerging from the diaries, (Symon 2004). Data collection requires little of the researchers time, giving me time to deal with other time consuming aspect of the research. Diaries can be more useful than questionnaires for collecting information about the sequencing of activities and frequency of food choice by different participants. Keeping a diary in which participants record food patterns may help the participants understand their own feeding pattern processes. This applies not only to families but also to individual researchers, who may learn about their own practice.#p#分頁標題#e#
 

Challenges with the method.

The degree of familiarity with taking a reflexive approach may vary between academic disciplines and between different levels of study (Symon 2004). Some participants may need more guidance than others depending on their understanding on how to approach keeping a diary, participants want to know if specific type of food should be recorded whether or not they were eaten and its contribution to the evaluation process. It is possible that certain food would have been recoded without them been eaten by the participant in other to have a full or balanced diary. The method is resource intensive for the participants involved in the process, it is possible that participants do not eat as often, as they are required to write in the diary, so they may have to change the number of times they eat in other to meet the requirement of the data collection straining their income. And incentives (such as even making African foods) may be needed to encourage participation.
 

Participants lose motivation in evaluations since it required participation for about month, which resulted in drop-out, less informative, less accurate and incomplete data towards the end of the process. The reflection required for participants to complete the diary may have caused them to change their behaviour. The time delay between when meal was taken and completion of the diary may mean that participants cannot remember much about what food they may have eaten or what combination they had with it, or as in the case where older children had to fill in for their mother's they may have left some detail out. In the cases where parents have eaten different food from the children, an inaccurate record may have been given, the challenge of choosing what food to put down because of the varieties the family had. May affect the outcome if not put into consideration.


The qualitative nature of research diary makes it, inductive, descriptive and theory building; it then becomes useful for commodity application. The research diary is suitable for studies about people who may not necessarily do anything about their situation or have come to live with certain challenges with the lifestyle or culture. But their experience can be shared and related by researchers. The research work is seen as a change agent in under voiced communities (Whyte 1991). It is ideal for providing a forum for the concerns of the under voiced subgroups (Hesse-Biber et al 2006:318). In this research, this method has been used to observe patterns of food consumption specifically by families. Descriptive information about consumer perception and preference of African foods and why they maybe eaten more regularly than others can be related using the research diary method. The method relates an implication of reality (Hesse-Biber et al 2006: 319).
 

Mixed methods used.

For the exploration of this research, a mixed method approach has been used with emphasis on the method which contains the most relevant information. Mixed method maybe used in addressing different topics or the same topic but from different perspectives. In this research, the different methods are used to address the same issue from different people, either as consumer or as owner of business. I have used questionnaires, which where administered to individuals, semi-structured interviews for food store owners, and food restaurant owners, and food diary for women and mothers. According to Denzin, between method triangulation is the combination of two or more methods. (Flick 2000:230). This mixing method is used to validate results obtained within individual methods. According to Denzin, triangulation may be used to further grounding knowledge obtained within qualitative method(flick 2000:230). Mixed method of evaluation allows for the interpretation of results both qualitatively and quantitatively in analysing consumer understanding (Fretching & Sharp, 1997).#p#分頁標題#e#
 

The quantitative method of analysis was also used in the research in order to have a numerical representation of the consumers and their answers to some major questions in trying to answer the research questions.
 

Limitations of methodology

At first, there was the challenge of booking appointments for interview with owners of business during work hours. This proved difficult as getting the attention of the owners is almost impossible with customers coming in and out of the stores to make their purchase. Most business people do not want to grant interviews because the feel the importance of attending to customers rather than giving interview to researcher who may not have the ability to improve the present situation of the business.
 

One of the major disadvantages of the interview method is that, the longer the interview time, the longer the transcription, I found it very time consuming to transcribe interviews, especially when it has to do with the interviewee digressing from the questions asked in other to buttress his or her point. As Flick noted, there is the problem of mediating between the input of the interviewer guide and the aims of the research question, then the interviewee's style of presentation (Flick 1998:95). However, Hopf (1978) advice against applying interview guide too formally, because it may restrict or limit openness and information given by the interviewee as the interviewer is trying to keep to strict rules of the interview guide (Hopf 1978:100). The use of slangs and accent also made it difficult to translate into to proper English. Another problem is associated with this method is interviewees bias against consumers, due to their response to the cost of food. This bias affects honest answers to some questions which had to do with consumers' preference and patronage.


However, Interviews across owners of small businesses have raised difficult questions about my positionality as researcher. On one occasion, the son of the owner of the food store refused to grant me interview because as he thought, I was one of the many people who come to find out details concerning their business and return to start and develop similar business having claimed to be a researcher. He gave an example of a nearby store and how it had grown using market information it had got from them. He expressed unwillingness to grant interview.
 

The question of confidentiality has become a very important issue for small and growing business as it tends to affect either positively or negatively the business after the interview.
 

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS

Historical background of Liverpool

The city is known for its historical background in cross nation trading activities, from North America, and Africa. Liverpool in the 18th to the 20th century was leading the leading international seaport in the British Empire and was also Europe's most important transatlantic port. Its port was particularly known for its involvement in the slave trade era of Africa. The city's port was highly successful in general cargo for import and export. Its imported commodities were cotton, corn, tobacco, other foods and raw materials, and exported manufactured goods, such as cotton yarn, woollens, metals, and machineries. Liverpool as a result of these heavy trades contributed significantly to the global impact of the industrial revolution and growth of the British empire. It started first as a commercial seaport then later became a settlement for businessmen who came to trade.#p#分頁標題#e#
 

Liverpool was seriously affected by the Second World War, where a lot of their buildings were destroyed and trading stopped. The economy boomed after the rebuilding of the city in the 1950s-1960s war recovery, but then recession came in the 1970s. It was the second largest port in England next only to London. The geographical location of Liverpool being bordered by the sea would have been an added advantage, or rather was until due to lack of investment and funding, the city became unattractive both to investors and settlers and residents. However, the city had lacked investment over the past 30years and the result is serious deprivation in the urban areas. Lack of housing and housing stock etc and eventually became one of the poorest cities in England.
 

As raised in the methodology section, the license of drinks at major African restaurant is a major setback for thriving businesses within the city. The term of contract for most landlords, restrict business owners from selling beers and hot drinks in the restaurant, and this affects the food business as most consumers would want to have a drink after or before their meal which is the normal thing with other ethnic food restaurants.
 

CHAPTER 5

TRADE RELATIONS BETWEEN AFRICA AND UNITED KINGDOM
 

CHAPTER 6

DATA ANAYLSIS

A total of 150 questionnaires were administered and 150 all were returned as they were self administered in religious centres such as such, community centres and homes of African families. 2 of the churches have attendance of over 50 people on Sunday morning, the community centres have people who come in during the day and questionnaires were given to them not in any particular order, order distribution was done through visits, and randomly selection.


58% of student respondents say that their diet has change since coming to Liverpool. One of the reasons mostly likely for this change are cost. African food are very expensive and are not very much available and accessible within the city as most respondents have to travel for not less than 5miles to purchase a food stuff and ingredients. Most students has also indicated the time it takes to cook the food and the cost of gas. Time is very precious for students and for anybody for that matter, so when they are opportune to cook, they have to plan ahead of time. Bringing to place the theory of planned behaviour, where income and time is planned to achieve certain goal. For a student to experience a proper African meal at least over a period of time, cooking is done is large quantities, and that could also mean about three dishes cooked at the same time. For example ogbono, egusi and red stew is cooked and kept in the freeze and would last for several weeks depending on the quantity how often it is eaten and number of people eating. These food are eaten as personal or individual treat most of the time. Ogbono and egusi egusi melon soup could be eaten with pounded yam (similar to potato mash) or with garri (processed cassava) these are major staple food eaten among the west African region of Africa. The red stew and rice is the most common in all regions of Africa. Red stew can also be eaten with bread, yam and garri, but with garri, the vegetable could be added to it.#p#分頁標題#e#