新西蘭梅西大學留學生可持續發展分析dissertation

關于可持續發展的理想要求
 

有關可持續發展的定義有很多，但是最常被引用的定義的來自《我們的共同的未來》，也被成為布倫特纜報告：[1]
 

“可持續發展是迎合當代的需求，又不損害后代人滿足他們自己的需求的能力。其中它包含了兩個關鍵的概念：
 

需求的概念，特別是世界上的窮人的必要需求，是最應該優先考慮的；而由對于想法的限制性，它是由為了滿足現代和未來的需求的能力而建立的國家和社會組織強行施加的行為方式。
 

可持續發展的定義需要我們把世界看成一個系統--一個連接空間的系統，和一個連接時間的系統。
 

當你把世界看成一個同一空間的系統，你開始理解來自北美的空氣污染會影響亞洲的空氣質量，且阿根廷的垃圾污染可能危害在澳大利亞海岸的魚類。
 

當你把世界看成一個同一時間的系統，你會開始意識到我們祖父母所做的關于如何種田的決定繼續會影響當今的農業行為，且我們當今簽署的經濟政策會在我們的孩子長大成人后，對我們的城市貧困產生影響。

Regarding The Ideal Requirements On Sustainable Development Economics Essay

 

Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is from Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report:[1]

 

"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts:

 

the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs."

 

All definitions of sustainable development require that we see the world as a system—a system that connects space; and a system that connects time.

 

When you think of the world as a system over space, you grow to understand that air pollution from North America affects air quality in Asia, and that pesticides sprayed in Argentina could harm fish stocks off the coast of Australia.

 

And when you think of the world as a system over time, you start to realize that the decisions our grandparents made about how to farm the land continue to affect agricultural practice today; and the economic policies we endorse today will have an impact on urban poverty when our children are adults.

 

We also understand that quality of life is a system, too. It's good to be physically healthy, but what if you are poor and don't have access to education? It's good to have a secure income, but what if the air in your part of the world is unclean? And it's good to have freedom of religious expression, but what if you can't feed your family?#p#分頁標題#e#

 

The concept of sustainable development is rooted in this sort of systems thinking. It helps us understand ourselves and our world. The problems we face are complex and serious—and we can't address them in the same way we created them. But we can address them.

 

It's that basic optimism that motivates IISD's staff, associates and board to innovate for a healthy and meaningful future for this planet and its inhabitants.

 

The importance of sustainable development

 

Sustainable development includes passing on to future generations a stock of 'capital' that is at least as big as the one that our own generation inherited. Capital in this sense means the world's assets, these include money, buildings and less tangible assets such as the stoke of skills and social systems, as well as natural resources.

 

Many ores that are mined have no intrinsic value - they need to be mined and processed in technically complete systems before they can be turned into money when the resources company sells them. Anglo American is committed to contributing to sustainable development. It was designated the mining sector leader for 2004/5 in the Dow Jones Sustainability Index. In 2005 it also received the Business in the Community International Award for its contribution to the Millennium Development Goals in Africa.

 

Global demand for most metals continues to grow at 2%-4% per annum. Recycling and re-use can only meet some of this growth. As more people aspire to a higher standard of living, firms working in the primary sector face the challenge of finding and mining the materials needed to make the goods required.

 

Responsible use of all natural resources benefits both the next generation and companies (because the costs are reduced). It includes reducing the amount of resources that are used (input - e.g. iron and coal) for the amount of product (output - e.g. steel).

 

In August 2002, South Africa hosted the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD). The Summit wrestled with the problem that huge imbalances in wealth between countries provide the biggest challenge for global development. Mineral deposits are vital to the development of many poorer nations as well as to the continuance of rich countries' lifestyles. Extracting these sensitively allows these poorer countries to develop their education and health systems and other forms of human and social capital.

 

The United Nations set out the Millennium Development Goals for the year 2015. These include:

 

developing a global partnership for sustainable development

 

halving the numbers of people living on less than $1 a day or suffering from hunger

 

ensuring all children complete primary schooling

 

Halting the spread of AIDS and other major diseases.

 

Elements of Sustainable Development: Environment, Society and Economy

 

A key feature of sustainable development is that it comprises three elements: Environment, Society, Economy. Or, if you like, the three Ps: Planet, People, Profit. All three, in no particular order, are balanced so that one doesn’t destroy another.

 

A sustain ably run fishing community would go something like this:

 

They’re environmentally responsible: they don’t over fish, so preserve breeding stocks for next year.

 

They’re socially responsible: they make sure the fish they do catch generate jobs within the community.

 

They’re economically responsible: they stay in profit.

 

Sustainable development emphatically does not mean a return to some sort of pre-industrial lifestyle. It’s about getting a better quality of life, not worse. The key is to use technology to help us to achieve sustainable development, not use sustainable development as a reason to shun technology. It means you can use your car, enjoy central heating, and wash your clothes and dishes by machine. You just do it in such a way that you’re not wasting anything, that everything is re-used or recycled, that everything is developing sustain ably.

 

Of course we know it’s not that simple. All round Ireland, we’re depleting fish stocks. The reasons are complex but boil down to this: people have to over fish because of over fishing. There are too many factory ships chasing too few fish to sell too cheaply. Sustainable development is all very well, but, in essence, are the politicians going to subsidies trawlers not to catch fish in order to give them a job in the next decade?

 

Also, no government is able to do much about changing our unsustainable way of life if we continue to be passive, apathetic consumers. For example, the Island’s transport system - it favors cars over public transport because, frankly, most of us want it that way. If the motor lobby says that reducing car use will cost jobs, and if car use keeps going up, it will be a brave MP/TD who dares to put through anti-car legislation. (Of course, there is also a counter argument that when, and until, public transport improves, things will not change anyway.) Anyone can see that it’s unsustainable - but it’s up to us to do something about it.

 

So what can we do? Well, as the waste hierarchy goes, we could start with minimizing waste: print only when necessary (and always double sided), store copies of e-mails electronically, and take the stairs more often. Also, we could re-use or recycle. But although these are important first steps, they can sometimes seem a bit insignificant. Even if you diligently recycled every letter, brochure and fact sheet you received, it would still only amount to saving a twig or two. If everyone does it, of course it becomes significant: new markets can become viable for using recycled plastic, glass, paper, clothes and laser cartridges.#p#分頁標題#e#

 

Ideal Requirement in the Pursuit Sustainable Development

 

Economic

 

The economy of Bangladesh is a rapidly developing market-based economy. Its per capita income in 2010 was est. US$1,700 (adjusted by purchasing power parity). According to the International Monetary Fund, Bangladesh ranked as the 43rd largest economy in the world in 2010 in PPP terms and 57th largest in nominal terms, among the Next Eleven or N-11 of Goldman Sachs and D-8 economies, with a gross domestic product of US$269.3 billion in PPP terms and US$104.9 billion in nominal terms. The economy has grown at the rate of 6-7% per annum over the past few years. More than half of the GDP is generated by the service sector; while nearly half of Bangladeshis are employed in the agriculture sector. Other goods produced are textiles, jute, fish, vegetables, fruit, leather and leather goods, ceramics, ready-made goods.

 

Remittances from Bangladeshis working overseas, mainly in the Middle East, is the major source of foreign exchange earnings; exports of garments and textiles are the other main sources of foreign exchange earnings. Ship building and cane cultivation have become a major force of growth. GDP's rapid growth due to sound financial control and regulations have also contributed to its growth; however, foreign direct investment is yet to rise significantly. Bangladesh has made major strides in its human development index.

 

The land is devoted mainly to rice and jute cultivation as well as fruits and other produce, although wheat production has increased in recent years; the country is largely self-sufficient in rice production. Bangladesh's growth of its agricultural industries is due to its fertile deltaic land that depend on its six seasons and multiple harvests.

 

Transportation, communication, water distribution, and energy infrastructure are rapidly developing.[6] Bangladesh is limited in its reserves of oil, but recently there has been huge development in gas and coal mining. The service sector has expanded rapidly during last two decades and the country's industrial base remains very positive. The country's main endowments include its vast human resource base, rich agricultural land, relatively abundant water, and substantial reserves of natural gas, with the blessing of possessing the worlds only natural sea ports in Mongla and Chittagong, in addition to being the only central port linking two large burgeoning economic hub groups SAARC and ASEAN.

 

Macro-economic trend

 

This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Bangladesh at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Bangladeshi Taka. However, this reflects only the formal sector of the economy.

 

Map showing the growing areas of major agricultural products.#p#分頁標題#e#

 

Agriculture of Bangladesh

 

Most Bangladeshis earn their living from agriculture. Although rice and jute are the primary crops, maize and vegetables are assuming greater importance. Due to the expansion of irrigation networks, some wheat producers have switched to cultivation of maize which is used mostly as poultry feed. Tea is grown in the northeast. Because of Bangladesh's fertile soil and normally ample water supply, rice can be grown and harvested three times a year in many areas. Due to a number of factors, Bangladesh's labor-intensive agriculture has achieved steady increases in food grain production despite the often unfavorable weather conditions. These include better flood control and irrigation, a generally more efficient use of fertilizers, and the establishment of better distribution and rural credit networks. With 28.8 million metric tons produced in 2005-2006 (July–June), rice is Bangladesh's principal crop. By comparison, wheat output in 2005-2006 was 9 million metric tons. Population pressure continues to place a severe burden on productive capacity, creating a food deficit, especially of wheat. Foreign assistance and commercial imports fill the gap, but seasonal hunger ("monga") remains a problem. Underemployment remains a serious problem, and a growing concern for Bangladesh's agricultural sector will be its ability to absorb additional manpower. Finding alternative sources of employment will continue to be a daunting problem for future governments, particularly with the increasing numbers of landless peasants who already account for about half the rural labor force. Due to farmers' vulnerability to various risks, Bangladesh's poorest face numerous potential limitations on their ability to enhance agriculture production and their livelihoods. These include an actual and perceived risk to investing in new agricultural technologies and activities (despite their potential to increase income), a vulnerability to shocks and stresses and a limited ability to mitigate or cope with these and limited access to market information.

 

Manufacturing and industry

 

Many new jobs - mostly for women - have been created by the country's dynamic private ready-made garment industry, which grew at double-digit rates through most of the 1990s. By the late 1990s, about 1.5 million people, mostly women, were employed in the garments sector as well as Leather products specially Footwear (Shoe manufacturing unit). During 2001-2002, export earnings from ready-made garments reached $3,125 million, representing 52% of Bangladesh's total exports. Bangladesh has overtaken India in apparel exports in 2009, its exports stood at 2.66 billion US dollar, ahead of India's 2.27 billion US dollar.

 

Eastern Bengal was known for its fine muslin and silk fabric before the British period. The dyes, yarn, and cloth were the envy of much of the pre-modern world. Bengali muslin, silk, and brocade were worn by the aristocracy of Asia and Europe. The introduction of machine-made textiles from England in the late eighteenth century spelled doom for the costly and time-consuming hand loom process. Cotton growing died out in East Bengal, and the textile industry became dependent on imported yarn. Those who had earned their living in the textile industry were forced to rely more completely on farming. Only the smallest vestiges of a once-thriving cottage industry survived. Other industries which have shown very strong growth include the chemical industry, steel industry, mining industry and the paper and pulp industry.#p#分頁標題#e#

 

Textile sector

 

Bangladesh's textile industry, which includes knitwear and ready-made garments along with specialized textile products, is the nation's number one export earner, accounting for 80% of Bangladesh's exports of $15.56 billion in 2009. Bangladesh is 2nd in world textile exports, and China which exported $120.1 billion worth of textiles in 2009. The industry employs nearly 3.5 million workers. Current exports have doubled since 2004. Wages in Bangladesh's textile industry were the lowest in the world as of 2010. The country was considered the most formidable rival to China where wages were rapidly rising and currency was appreciating. As of 2012 wages remained low for the 3 million people employed in the industry, but labor unrest was increasing despite vigorous government action to enforce labor peace. Owners of textile firms and their political allies were a powerful political influence in Bangladesh.

 

After massive labor unrest in 2006 the government formed a Minimum Wage Board including business and worker representatives which in 2006 set a minimum wage equivalent to 1,662.50 taka, $24 a month, up from Tk950. In 2010, following widespread labor protests involving 100,000 workers in June, 2010, a controversial proposal was being considered by the Board which would raise the monthly minimum to the equivalent of $50 a month, still far below worker demands of 5,000 taka, $72, for entry level wages, but unacceptably high according to textile manufacturers who are asking for a wage below $30. On July 28, 2010 it was announced that the minimum entry level wage would be increased to 3,000 taka, about $43.

 

The government also seems to believe some change is necessary. On September 21, 2006 then ex-Prime called on textile firms to ensure the safety of workers by complying with international labor law at a speech inaugurating the Bangladesh Apparel & Textile Exposition (BATEXPO).

 

Investment

 

The stock market capitalization of the Dhaka Stock Exchange in Bangladesh crossed $10 billion in November 2007 and the $30 billion dollar mark in 2009, and USD 50 billion in August 2010. Bangladesh had one of the best performing stock markets in the world during the recent global recession, due to relatively low correlations with developed country stock markets.

 

Major investment in real estate by domestic and foreign-resident Bangladeshis has led to a massive building boom in Dhaka and Chittagong.

 

Recent (2011) trends for investing in Bangladesh as Saudi Arabia trying to secure public and private investment in oil and gas, power and transportation projects, United Arab Emirates (UAE) is keen to invest in growing shipbuilding industry in Bangladesh encouraged by comparative cost advantage, Tata, an India-based leading industrial multinational to invest Taka 1500 crore to set up an automobile industry in Bangladesh, World Bank to invest in rural roads improving quality of live, the Rwandan entrepreneurs are keen to invest in Bangladesh's pharmaceuticals sector considering its potentiality in international market, Samsung sought to lease 500 industrial plots from the export zones authority to set up an electronics hub in Bangladesh with an investment of US$1.25 billion, National Board of Revenue (NBR) is set to withdraw tax rebate facilities on investment in the capital market by individual taxpayers from the fiscal 2011-12.

 

2010-11 market crash

 

Main article: 2011 Bangladesh share market scam

 

The bullish capital market turned bearish during 2010, with the exchange losing 1,800 points between December 2010 and January 2011. Millions of investors have been rendered bankrupt as a result of the market crash. The crash is believed to be caused artificially to benefit a handful of players at the expense of the big players.

 

External trade

 

The Bangladesh Garments Manufacturers and Exporters Association (BGMEA) has predicted textile exports will rise from US$7.90 billion earned in 2005-06 to US$15 billion by 2011. In part this optimism stems from how well the sector has fared since the end of textile and clothing quotas, under the Multifibre Agreement, in early 2005.

 

According to a United Nations Development Programme report "Sewing Thoughts: How to Realize Human Development Gains in the Post-Quota World" Bangladesh has been able to offset a decline in European sales by cultivating new markets in the United States.

 

"[In 2005] we had tremendous growth. The quota-free textile regime has proved to be a big boost for our factories," said BGMEA president S.M. Fazlul Hoque told reporters, after the sector's 24 per cent growth rate was revealed.

 

Bangladesh Knitwear Manufacturers and Exporters Association (BKMEA) president Md Fazlul Hoque has also struck an optimistic tone. In an interview with United News Bangladesh he lauded the blistering growth rate, saying "The quality of our products and its competitiveness in terms of prices helped the sector achieve such... tremendous success."

 

Knitwear posted the strongest growth of all textile products in 2005-06, surging 35.38 per cent to US$2.82 billion. On the downside however, the sector's strong growth came amid sharp falls in prices for textile products on the world market, with growth subsequently dependent upon large increases in volume.

 

Bangladesh's quest to boost the quantity of textile trade was also helped by US and EU caps on Chinese textiles. The US cap restricts growth in imports of Chinese textiles to 12.5 per cent next year and between 15 and 16 per cent in 2008. The EU deal similarly manages import growth until 2008.

 

Bangladesh may continue to benefit from these restrictions over the next two years, however a climate of falling global textile prices forces wage rates the centre of the nation's efforts to increase market share.

 

They offer a range of incentives to potential investors including 10 year tax holidays, duty free import of capital goods, raw materials and building materials, exemptions on income tax on salaries paid to foreign nationals for three years and dividend tax exemptions for the period of the tax holiday.#p#分頁標題#e#

 

All goods produced in the zones are able to be exported duty free, in addition to which Bangladesh benefits from the Generalized System of Preferences in US, European and Japanese markets and is also endowed with Most Favored Nation status from the United States.

 

Furthermore, Bangladesh imposes no ceiling on investment in the EPZs and allows full repatriation of profits. The formation of labor unions within the EPZs is prohibited as are strikes. Bangladesh's exports to the U.S. surpassed $1.9 billion in 1999. Bangladesh also exports significant amounts of garments and knitwear to the EU market. Bangladesh also has significant jute, leather, shrimp, pharmaceutical, and ceramics industries.

 

Bangladesh has been a world leader in its efforts to end the use of child labor in garment factories. On July 4, 1995, the Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers Export Association, International Labor Organization, and UNICEF signed a memorandum of understanding on the elimination of child labor in the garment sector. Implementation of this pioneering agreement began in fall 1995, and by the end of 1999, child labor in the garment trade virtually had been eliminated. The labor-intensive process of ship breaking for scrap has developed to the point where it now meets most of Bangladesh's domestic steel needs. Other industries include sugar, tea, leather goods, newsprint, pharmaceutical, and fertilizer production.

 

The Bangladesh government continues to court foreign investment, something it has done fairly successfully in private power generation and gas exploration and production, as well as in other sectors such as cellular telephony, textiles, and pharmaceuticals. In 1989, the same year it signed a bilateral investment treaty with the United States, it established a Board of Investment to simplify approval and start-up procedures for foreign investors, although in practice the board has done little to increase investment. The government created the Bangladesh Export Processing Zone Authority to manage the various export processing zones. The agency currently manages EPZs in Adamjee, Chittagong, Comilla, Dhaka, Ishwardi, Karnaphuli, Mongla, and Uttara. An EPZ has also been proposed for Sylhet.The government has given the private sector permission to build and operate competing EPZs-initial construction on a Korean EPZ started in 1999. In June 1999, the AFL-CIO petitioned the U.S. Government to deny Bangladesh access to U.S. markets under the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP), citing the country's failure to meet promises made in 1992 to allow freedom of association in EPZs.Sylhet is fast becoming a major center of retailing in Bangladesh, with many shopping centers being built by expatriates to serve fellow expatriates visiting Sylhet and the emerging middle class. Many of these developments hark back to Britain.

 

Bangladesh has made significant strides in its economic sector performance since independence in 1971. Although the economy has improved vastly in the 1990s, Bangladesh still suffers in the area of foreign trade in South Asian region. Despite major impediments to growth like the inefficiency of state-owned enterprises, a rapidly growing labor force that cannot be absorbed by agriculture, inadequate power supplies, and slow implementation of economic reforms, Bangladesh has made some headway improving the climate for foreign investors and liberalizing the capital markets; for example, it has negotiated with foreign firms for oil and gas exploration, better countrywide distribution of cooking gas, and the construction of natural gas pipelines and power stations. Progress on other economic reforms has been halting because of opposition from the bureaucracy, public sector unions, and other vested interest groups.

 

The especially severe floods of 1998 increased the flow of international aid. So far the global financial crisis has not had a major impact on the economy. The World Bank predicted economic growth of 6.5% for current year. Foreign aid has seen a decline of 10% over the last few months but economists see this as a good sign for self-reliance. There has been 18% growth in exports over the last 9 months and remittance inflow has increased at a remarkable 25% rate.

 

All of these forces should be acknowledged for their impacts on and potential opportunities for the community. Properly harnessed, these forces can play important roles in achieving the goals of sustainable communities.

 

Productivity

 

The green revolution or conventional agricultural system is pervasive in Bangladesh, and efforts are being pursued to promote this technology to cope with the ever-growing demand for food grain. Scientific research findings on conventional agriculture have revealed that this type of agriculture has enabled farmers to fulfill their immediate needs at the cost of environmental degradation, thereby threatening the sustainability of agriculture itself as well as the health of people consuming its products. Some efforts have been made in Bangladesh during the past decade or more to promote ecological agriculture in the interests of sustainability and long-term wellbeing of the people. In this regard, the ecological agriculture being promoted by UBINIG is a pioneering endeavor aimed at making agriculture environmentally sound, economically viable and socially acceptable. The findings of this study reveal that even after 12 years of the implementation of the ecological agriculture promotion program, this type of agriculture differs little from conventional agriculture, particularly in terms of land-use patterns, crop yields, stability of yields, risk and uncertainties, and food security. Likewise, there is no significant difference between the two agricultural systems in financial and economic benefits, and value addition. It should be noted that, although so far crop yield and stability in the conventional system have been maintained on a par with the ecological system by applying ever-increasing amounts of chemical fertilizers, farmers have experienced declining yields over successive years. Farmers mentioned that crop yields would decrease substantially, thereby jeopardizing their food supply, if the amount of fertilizers is not increased. This is an indication of a trend towards un sustainability. One of the main reasons why ecological farming has not proved economically more attractive is that so far there is no difference in market prices of products from the two systems.

Most consumers in Bangladesh are still not much concerned about the health effects of agro-chemicals-based products. Ecological agriculture will probably be economically attractive in the future, if increasingly health-concerned urban people will be ready to pay higher prices for produce free of chemical fertilizers and toxic insecticides. Regarding cropping patterns, there is no significant variation in terms of area under different types of crops, as the major percentage of landholdings are still being cultivated with paddy in both conventional and ecological farming systems. Significant variation was found if varieties of crops cultivated are taken into consideration. Because of the promotional efforts made by the project, the ecological system is considerably more diversified than the conventional system, which is a step forward towards sustainable agricultural systems. Significant variation between the conventional and ecological systems is reflected in the use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides, which are the primary causes of land, water and atmospheric pollution, as well as degradation of food quality. Although the majority of ecological farmers still apply chemical fertilizers, the amount that they are applying is significantly lower than the amount that conventional farmers are applying. The most remarkable achievement made by the project in the ecological farming system is that so few farmers are applying chemical insecticides to crops. Using their indigenous knowledge, most farmers are controlling insects through the use of herbal insecticides and other measures, including traps. These practices have contributed to making the ecological system environmentally more sustainable than the conventional system. Moreover, the ecological system is considerably less dependent on external inputs than the conventional system. The results indicate that there is potential to promote ecological agriculture in a sustainable way as differences in crop yields and financial benefits are small. However, farmers will not automatically shift to this type of agriculture, as the financial return is higher in the conventional agriculture, because the existing policies do not require farmers to pay for the external costs, such as health hazards and water pollution caused by excessive and unbalanced use of agro-chemicals. Because of very small landholdings, most farmers in the study area are finding it difficult to fulfill their subsistence requirements.

Since today’s food security is more important than tomorrow’s, their prime concern is increasing crop production. In view of such constraints, it is necessary to devise policies which will provide incentives to ecological farmers both directly and indirectly. Besides enabling ecological farmers to compete with conventional farmers by reducing the subsidy on natural gas utilized for producing chemical fertilizers, the government may consider a number of other policies conducive to increasing demand for agrochemical-free products. The government should launch a campaign through mass media, such as radio programs and television for making people aware of the positive health effects of ecological products and negative effects of conventional agro-products. As the rapidly growing urban middle-class are increasingly concerned about their health, such a campaign could help to attract them towards ecological agro-products, thereby increasing the market prices of such products and encouraging farmers to adopt ecological farming. The government could also consider subsidies for transportation and storage, and seek international markets for eco-products. To the extent that the country can bear its cost, providing subsidies for eco-products could be both financially and socially justified, if the environmental benefits that accrue to society are taken into account. The current policy of providing incentives to conventional agriculture will severely impinge on society in the long run. The government may find it very expensive to repair the damages caused by such agriculture. Other policy measures such as the provision of effective extension service and credit facilities are also conducive to promoting ecological farming, provided they are effectively implemented. Advising farmers to reduce or even abandon the use of agro-chemicals is an easy task, but farmers would find it difficult to accept it unless alternative cost-effective means of maintaining crop yields are provided to them. Discussions held with farmers revealed their concern about long-term negative implications of the application of chemical fertilizers at an ever-increasing rate. Many still believe that they cannot avoid this, because of a lack of alternatives on the one side, and the risk of food shortages on the other. Until effective biological measures of soil fertilization are introduced, policies could be adopted to promote the application of biological and chemical fertilizers in a balanced way, so as to maintain soil structure and sustain crop yield. For the time being, promotion of legume crop cultivation, agro forestry and livestock raising appears to be an appropriate strategy for improving biological fertilization of soils.#p#分頁標題#e#

 

Science and technology:

 

The need for faster technological development is increasingly felt in Bangladesh. Development plans of Bangladesh have emphasized science and technological research to develop technologies through adoption of imported technology as well as development of indigenous technologies. As the country is heavily dependent on imported technologies, proper planning is required for its effective transfer through acquisition, assimilation and adoption . A National Science and Technology Policy has recently been formulated and adopted by the Government. It has laid down the directions for S and T activities and research, institutional and manpower development, dissemination and documentation facilities. The National Council for Science and Technology (NCST) determines S and T policies, reviews the activities of different institutions and provides direction towards S and T research and activities. These are the efforts recently taken by the government. However, education system is yet to respond with a well-timed science and technology education and facilitates for education that can cater well the network age population to bring sustainable development through the advancement of human resources .

 

Administrative

 

Bangladesh emerged as an independent nation in 1971 after a bloody war with West Pakistan. After independence, it adopted a parliamentary form of government with theprime minister as the head of the government and the president as the head of the state.

 

Facing mounting economic, social, and political crises the government, through a constitutional amendment, established one-party rule with the president at the pinnacle of state power. The experiment was short-lived, as the government was violently overthrown by a group of military officers in August 1975. From August 1975 toNovember 1991 the military and quasi-military regimes ruled the country. The military government of General Ershad was overthrown by a popular upsurge in December 1991.

 

Again, through a constitutional amendment in 1991, Bangladesh went back to a parliamentary form of government. Bangladesh has basically a two-tier administrative system. All ministries and divisions are housed in the central secretariat, and they are entrusted with policy and clearing house functions. According to the latest statistics, there are 35 ministries and 52 departments On the other hand, government organizations representing the central

 

ministries, divisions and departments at the division level, district, thana (subdistrict), and union levels discharge general administrative, service delivery, and development project implementation functions. With 6 administrative divisions, 64 districts and 498 thanas, their presence is felt all over Bangladesh. The minister is the political head of a ministry.

 

The secretary is the administrative head, assisted by the joint secretary, deputy secretary, senior assistant secretary, and assistant secretary. There are also 178 departments that areresponsible for implementing the government’s development programs.

 

There are also autonomous bodies and corporations (known as statutory organizations)that have been established under special presidential orders, ordinances, and acts. The employees of these organizations are not civil servants. However, many senior civil servants are appointed to the higher positions of these organizations on deputation from the civil service. All the activities of the ministries, divisions, departments and their affiliated organizations at the division, district, and thana levels are carried out by the civil service.

 

There are basically two ways to classify the structure of the civil service. Civil services are classified vertically on the basis of the level of responsibility. As such, there are four classes of civil servants. Our main concern here is class 1 civil servants. Civil services are also classified horizontally on the basis of functional responsibility. Following this criterion, the higher civil services have been organized around twenty-nine cadres.

 

Members of these cadres, linked to different ministries, start their careers through open competitive examinations conducted by the Public Service Commission, a constitutional body with substantial autonomy. However, there are many class 1 civil servants who do not belong to the cadre service. Their promotional prospects are limited. The relevant department appoints them with the approval of the ministry. The members of cadre services generally fill up positions in the ministries. Moreover, historically, members of the Bangladesh Civil Service (Administration) have dominated the central secretariat The administrative system that Bangladesh has at this moment has evolved over a long period of time. Bangladesh, as part of united India, was under British rule until 1947, when India was split into two independent states: Pakistan and India. Bangladesh was part of Pakistan until 1971. To a large extent, the current administrative system reflects the legacy of the past. A review of contemporary literature suggests the following legacies:

 

Historically, the role of government is pervasive in all spheres of life. Consequently, the government has been overburdened with too many responsibilities, many of which could be carried out by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and the private sector.

 

In the absence of political development, the public bureaucracy has remained very dominant in Bangladesh. In other words, the bureaucracy has remained overdeveloped in relation to other institutions in society.

 

Questions are raised about the efficiency and effectiveness of public officials.

 

The decision-making system is highly centralized, leaving subordinate offices virtually powerless.

 

The lack of political and administrative accountability is quite evident.

 

There is a culture of secrecy in public service; administrative actions are not transparent.

 

The instruments of control and accountability are very weak.

 

The administrative system is afflicted with an inefficient public employment system, interceder rivalry, a lack of favorable conditions for women, and a lack of linkage between performance and reward.

 

There are widespread corrupt practices by public officials, caused by poor remuneration and their concomitant low self-motivation.

 

There is a high degree of politicization of the civil service. Many administrative decisions are made on party political lines or client list nexus. Because of this, existing rules and regulations can’t be enforced rationally.

 

The union of executive and judicial authority in the hands of officials belonging to the Bangladesh Civil Service (Administration) has further extended the supremacy of the executive branch and undermined the independence of the judiciary.

 

As a whole, public officials are blamed for their lack of service orientation. The poor service delivery system has also been aggravated by politicization.

 

The legacies of the administrative system and culture outlined above have not been uniform over the years. While most of them have been carried over from the past, the magnitude of bureaucratic corruption and politicization of administration and the service delivery system has increased many-fold in post-independent Bangladesh.

 

Participation

 

People’s Participation: Prerequisite for Development People’s participation in the affairs of the development activities is an important part of governance. Participation means people’s involvement in decision-making, planning and implementing of development objectives. And participatory approach to sustainable development has become popular worldwide which is often termed bottom up approaches for management and policy-making. Public participation in this regard is a cornerstone to both community development and community economic development. In order to make this cornerstone functional, a sense of consensus, or at least significant majority support, is very necessary. As Milton Esman observes, “one of the tasks of nation-building and development is of bring members of the national community into a network of relationships and institutions which enables then to participate actively in decisions affecting their individual and group welfare. Participation refers to the involvement of the people in decision-making and implementation of development programmed , in sharing their benefits and also in evaluating such programmed. The rationale of people’s participation is derived from the democratic imperative that all those whose interests are affected by decisions out to take part in the decision-making process. The important and significant causes lie behind the fact is that “when everybody takes part in the decision-making process, self-interest is supposed to guide them to arrive at decisions that are consistent with everybody’s good. Participation is about building partnership and ownership from the bottom up. More recently it was discovered that participation helps promise outside the project framework for planning and implementing large-scale government programmers , and for encouraging good and often local governance. In the 1960s the governments of the Third World promised to put an end to rural poverty through “Green Revolution.” Today it is people’s participation. which has been more important. After the mid 1970s the new strategy of participation has emerged as a major new force in development thinking. It is believed that people’s participation may lead to good governance paving the way for sustainable development. Through participation the people of the community concerned become more enthusiastic and encourages than what there were ever before the process for people’s centered development initiative began. When they feel concerned with the community development programmers they become more assertive and hold positive attitude towards the initiatives. And people learn how to promote their own development by actually participating in the process of planning, implementation, monitoring and evolution. Participation as an educative process contributes to human resource development. It is one of the parameters for promoting good governance which envisages participation of the entire society in governance through change in their subsidiary roles and their direct involvement in areas hitherto kept exclusive in the public domain. Participation is also discussed as a process whereby the poor people seek to enhance some influence and to gain access to the resources which would help them sustain and improve their standards. Participation of citizens in the development process in the heartbeat and pulse rate of development administration. It also refers to the decentralization of governance which is an effective mechanism for increasing sustainable development. Further, by facilitating people’s participation, decentralization can act as a vehicle for mobilizing popular support for development programmed and projects because of the feeling of local ownership of the initiative. It encourages, people to maximize their own commitment and contribution towards the successful implementation of development projects and towards making development enduring. The participation of people in the governance process is considered to be very significant and crucial for sustainable development. With the participation of the local people on a regular basis economic development can be achieved at the level of expectation and political development as well. People’s participation in decision-making, planning and evaluating policies plays a key and supportive role in local governance leading to sustainable development.

Social-Politics

 

Social development is a concept that is familiar to most of us in its many and varying forms.  Within any given society there are opportunities to improve and enrich each of its composite parts in many ways.  Of sometimes greater importance is the need to harmonize relations amongst these various and sometimes opposing elements.  Those actively engaged in the process of social development include agents acting within its institutions to effect change via established channels.  Of more notice, however, are often those who act from the outside, those who reject the society’s institutions as inadequate, and who advocate wholesale social and political change as the only true path to social enrichment and development.

 

It is in this transformational role that we begin to touch on the realm of social-political sustainability.  Within any given social context, social development can be pursued with the simple granting of budgets.  Financial and human resources are utilized to strengthen and enrich societies by improving educational opportunities, by embracing the marginalized and the forgotten, by making improvements to healthcare and hygienic conditions and by endearing knowledge of financial and entrepreneurial activities to name just a few.  Here, the distinguishing feature of social development is that it is executed within the institutional mechanisms and constraints prevailing in that given entity.

 

Social-political sustainability too is very much concerned with physical and material standing of peoples, but further than this it is concerned with the state of their civil society.  Social-political sustainability is differentiated from pure social development in that its sphere is expanded beyond the employment of simply monetary means.  Social-political development entails not only the engagement of institutional mechanisms, but also their modification and advancement.  Social-political sustainability thus seeks pathways to durable social enrichment and development via the vibrancy and health of a society’s political processes. In addition to social policy, environmental and economic policies are clearly dictated in the political realm as well.  It is in the creed of the sustainability project to hold that healthy political bodies which are truly representative of the collective will can show us the path forward.  Recognition of the strain to our natural environment that unrestrained industrialization and consumption have brought depends upon it.

 

Faith in democracy and the ideologies it espouses transcends the purely political arena.  In a free and wealthy society, those in the pursuit of scientific truth battle only scientific obstacles.  If the danger is real, the truth will be brought to bear.  But even in the face of incontrovertible truth, can the titanic inertia of human complacency and comfort be overcome and conquered?#p#分頁標題#e#

 

Political Unrest in Bangladesh:

 

Political conflict and lack of tolerance for taking opinion of the citizen of Bangladesh and the opposite party is a serious problem for national unity and development. Following can be done:

 

Steps to taken opinion of the citizen .

 

Steps to be taken for national for unity by the ruling alliance and opposition parties.

 

Citizen as well as Opposition parties, participation to be included in nation building Program.

 

Strike should be band unanimously.

 

Law and order maintenance committee should be formed at each Upa-zala level by combining local people as well as ruling and position party leaders who will identify criminals and ensure action by law and order authority.

 

Muscle power and use of excessive money should be restricted in election.

 

Terrorists should not by party.

 

Conclusion

 

The major issues for sustainable development in socio , economic and environmental sectors have been identified and some suggested measures put forward for policy formulation. Our approach to these issues needs to be undertaken based on national interest and not political party-biased interest. Though the approach may be different from government to government; but all these issues needs to be taken under consideration to find feasible solution.

 

In the specific context of the development and environment crises of 1980s, which current national and political and economic institutions have not and perhaps cannot overcome, the pursuit of sustainable development requires;

 

An economic system that is able to generate surpluses and technical knowledge on a self –reliant and sustained basis

 

A production system that respects the obligation to preserve the ecological base for development.

 

A social system that provides for solution for the tensions arising from disharmonious development.

 

A political system that secures effective citizen participation in decision making.

 

A technological system that can search continuously for new solution.

 

An international system that foster sustainable patterns of trade and finance, and administrative system that is flexible and has the capacity for self-correction.

 

These requirements are more in the nature of goals that should underline national and international action on development. What matters is the sincerity with which these goals are pursued and effectiveness with which departures from them are corrected.