留學生畢業dissertation：Standardization versus adaptation of
          
                
          
                    
                    
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           03-01, 2011
          
                
          
                
          EuropeanJournalof Marketing
          
Standardization versus adaptation of international advertising strategies:Towards a framework
          
Nikolaos Papavassiliou and Vlasis Stathakopoulos
          
Department of Management Science and Marketing, Athens Universityof Economics and Business, Athens, Greece
          
留學生dissertation網In the international marketing literature the topic of a global marketing mixstrategy has been debated quite extensively (see, for example, Ghoshal, 1987;
          
Jain, 1989; Levitt, 1983; Quelch and Hoff, 1986). Interestingly, advertising is atthe centre of this debate and receives most of the researchers’ attention. Theissue of advertising standardization in foreign markets was first discussed inthe early 1960s (Elinder, 1961; Fatt, 1964). Since then, the issue has ignited alively and heated debate among scholars and practitioners alike.International advertising standardization refers to using a common approach(i.e. common advertising messages) to promote the same product acrossnational boundaries. Even though the debate on standardized internationaladvertising is ongoing, an examination of previous research in its totalityidentifies two main approaches to international advertising: standardizationand adaptation of advertising campaigns.Proponents of the standardization approach argue that a single advertisingmessage with only minor modifications, or even advertisements with propertranslations, can be used in all countries to reach consumers. The rationalebehind this position is that buyers everywhere in the world share the same, orvery similar, wants and needs and, therefore, can be persuaded by universaladvertising appeals (Buzell, 1968; Fatt, 1967; Killough, 1978; Levitt, 1983;Sorenson and Weichmann, 1975). There are four main reasons that make thisapproach appealing. First, it allows the multinational corporation to maintain aconsistent image and identity throughout the world. Second, it minimizesconfusion among buyers who travel frequently. Third, it allows the multinationalcompany to develop a single, co-ordinated advertising campaign across differentmarkets. Finally, this approach results in considerable savings in media costs,advertising production costs, and advertising illustrative material.In contrast, opponents of the standardization approach argue that separatemessages should be used to reach buyers in different markets by fitting themessage to each particular country (Kotler, 1986). According to this approach,there are insurmountable differences (e.g. cultural, economic, legal, media andproduct dissimilarities) between countries and even between regions in the samecountry. Furthermore, these differences necessitate the adaptation or developmentof new/different advertising strategies. In addition, anecdotal evidence seems tochallenge the basic assumption of the standardization approach by suggestingthat assuming similar buying motives for consumers across foreign markets may,at best, be simplistic and, at worst, dangerous (Helming, 1982; Youovich, 1982).#p#分頁標題#e#
          
However, the decision whether to standardize or not cannot be considered adichotomous one. There are usually degrees of international advertisingstandardization. For example, several academics suggest that standardizingcertain aspects of the advertising campaign while at the same time adaptingother aspects to different market conditions is desirable (see, for example, Light,
          
1990; Peebles et al., 1977; Quelch and Hoff, 1986). Hence, we take the positionthat international advertising decisions can be viewed on a continuum with thewo polar ends of the continuum being standardization of creative advertisingstrategy and tactics, and adaptation of creative advertising strategy and tactics,respectively. Creative strategy refers to the advertising concept or theme(promise/claim), while creative tactics relates to the way in which theadvertising strategy is expressed or “executed” in the finished advertisements(e.g. visual elements, headlines, content of appeal, process of appeal)(Papavassiliou, 1990). The continuum concept suggests that internationaladvertising decisions must be either standardized or not standardized. If theyare not standardized, then they must be adapted, and hence one needs todetermine which adaptations are most appropriate in different situations.
          
The intent of this article is to develop a comprehensive framework to capturethe relevant factors/determinants that influence the spectrum of degrees in theadaptation of international advertising decisions. The article is organized asfollows: the first section presents the conceptual framework that will direct ourdiscussion. This framework identifies the factors (“local”, “firm” and“intrinsic”) that affect international advertising decisions. The second, the third,and the fourth section review the local, firm and intrinsic determinantsrespectively. Finally, the fifth section examines the characteristics and theconditions of the proposed international advertising strategy continuum.Conceptual frameworkThe framework shown in Figure 1 identifies three sets of variables (“local”,“firm” and “intrinsic”) which influence the standardization or the degree ofadaptation of advertising strategies on the international advertising strategycontinuum. The first set of determinants, termed “local”, refers to conditionsprevailing in the host country. It includes cultural environment, economicconditions, legal conditions, competition, advertising infrastructure, consumerprofile and country of origin image. The second set of determinants, termed“firm”, pertains to the company’s internal conditions and decisions. It involvesthe managerial and financial characteristics of the organization (i.e. corporatestrategy, internal culture, decision-making authority and financial condition)and the nature of the product. The third set of determinants, termed “intrinsic”,refers to conditions which influence international creative development and
          
#p#分頁標題#e#media planning. This set includes the objectives of international advertisingstrategy, the relationship between multinational advertiser and advertisingagency(ies), the determination of the elements of the communication mix, aswell as the support activities helping and the barriers preventing meeting theadvertising objectives. These three sets of factors constitute the area ofinfluences and are shown to affect international advertising decisionsindividually as well as in interaction with each other. In turn, Figure 1illustrates that the area of international advertising strategies is represented bya continuum with its two polar ends being standardization and adaptation.Local environmental determinantsCultural environment
          
The cultural environment is the complex set of beliefs, values, norms andattitudes acquired by consumers as part of their national heritage (Britt, 1974).
          
It has long been considered to have a significant influence on international
          
Figure 1.
          
Standardization versus
          
adaptation of
          
international
          
advertising strategies:
          
towards a framework
          
Local environmental determinants
          
• Cultural environment
          
• Economic conditions
          
• Legal conditions
          
• Competition
          
• Advertising infrastructure
          
• Consumer profile
          
• Country of origin Image
          
Firm environmental determinants
          
• Managerial and financial characteristics
          
– Corporate strategy
          
– Internal culture
          
– Decision-making authority
          
– Financial condition of the
          
organization
          
• Nature of product
          
Intrinsic determinants
          
• International advertising objectives
          
• Relationship between multinational
          
advertiser and advertising agency(ies)
          
• Creative strategy
          
• Media strategy
          
• Other elements of the communication-mix
          
• Support activities and barriers
          
Standardization of creative
          
strategy and tactics
          
A spectrum
          
of various
          
degrees of
          
adaptation
          
influenced by
          
the presence or
          
absence of the
          
local, firm and
          
intrinsic
          
determinants
          
Adaptation of creative
          
strategy and tactics
          
The
          
international
          
advertising
          
strategy
          
continuum
          
Area of influences Area of strategies and tactics
          
Standardization
          
versus
          
adaptation
          
507
          
advertising strategy (see, for example, Albaum and Peterson, 1984; Britt, 1974;
          
Donnelly, 1970; Douglas and Dubois, 1977; Harvey, 1993; Kanso, 1992; Mueller,
          
1992; Onkvisit and Shaw, 1987).
          
Synodinos et al. (1989), in their study of advertising practices across 15
          
countries, found striking dissimilarities in these practices. They attributed such
          
dissimilarities to cultural factors, among other determinants. Kanso (1992)#p#分頁標題#e#
          
examined the international advertising strategies of the Fortune 500 largest
          
corporations. His findings suggest that advertising messages should fit the
          
beliefs and traditions of the citizens in each country. Hornic (1980) studied the
          
degree of transferability of American print advertisements for well-known
          
American products distributed in Israel. He found that, in most cases, an
          
adaptive advertising strategy was followed and suggested that the creative
          
aspects of advertising should be adapted to the cultural and marketing
          
characteristics of each foreign market. Tse et al. (1986) examined the influence of
          
values on international marketing decisions made by executives in China, Hong
          
Kong, and Canada. They found significant differences that could be attributed to
          
the cultural norms of these countries. In addition, Graham et al. (1993), in their
          
study of how the home-country culture influences a firm’s marketing strategies
          
in foreign markets, found that German and Japanese companies adapt their
          
advertising strategies to foreign markets, albeit to different degrees.
          
Meuller (1987) found that traditional cultural values have an impact on
          
advertising message appeals. For example, Japanese magazine advertisements
          
tend to use more “soft-sell” and status appeals and fewer information appeals,
          
and to show more respect towards elders than American counterpart
          
advertisements. These results are consistent with those of a study by Hong et al.
          
(1987) that demonstrated the importance of stressing status symbols in
          
Japanese advertisements and emphasizing individual determinism in American
          
advertisements. Lin (1993) replicated Mueller’s results by finding that Japanese
          
TV advertisements are less informative than their US counterparts. Further,
          
Miracle et al. (1992) concluded from their study of Korean and US television
          
advertisements that cultural variables account for the differences identified in
          
advertising executions in the two countries. In a follow-up study, Mueller (1992)
          
examined the degree to which Japanese advertising is “westernized” (see also
          
Belk and Polay, 1985). She concluded that Japanese advertisements are still far
          
from being westernized and, hence, that using western advertising techniques
          
in Japan would be inappropriate. Finally et al. (1993) studied the content of
          
humorous television advertising in Korea, Germany, Thailand and the USA.
          
They found that the content (i.e. humour) of the advertisements varies among
          
those countries according to cultural dimensions.
          
Boote (1982), in his empirical comparative study of value structures in the UK,
          
Germany and France concluded that the underlying similarity in the value
          
structure of these three societies suffices to warrant a standardized advertising
          
strategy. He further suggested that any differences between those countries could#p#分頁標題#e#
          
be accommodated by “minor thematic variations” in the advertising messages or
          
by avoiding the elements of difference. Mueller (1991) studied the effects of
          
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“cultural distance” by examining the cultural differences between the USA and
          
Germany, on the one hand, the USA and Japan on the other. Cultural distance is
          
the degree of difference between message senders and message receivers
          
(Samover et al., 1981). She found that a standardized approach to advertising was
          
more likely when cultural distance was small (i.e. when the cultures were similar).
          
Hence, standardized advertising messages were more common for advertisements
          
transferred between the USA and Germany than for advertisements transferred
          
between the USA and Japan. In the latter countries, we have the hard-sell and softsell
          
approach in advertising, respectively. In addition, the primacy of individual
          
gratification prevails in the USA, while in Japan the emphasis is on group norms
          
(Johansson, 1994). Andrews et al. (1994) found that Russian consumers are not as
          
acculturated to the world of advertising as are US consumers. Hence, it is very
          
doubtful whether sexual and other imagery-eliciting stimuli could be used in
          
advertising products because Russian advertisements are at an underdeveloped
          
level, and do not follow western-style advertising (Wells, 1994). Foreign firms that
          
did not take into account cultural differences often left the Soviets with a feeling of
          
ignorance of these differences and insincerity towards any long-term commitment
          
to develop the Soviet market. Finally, Zandpour et al. (1994), in a study concerning
          
a lot of countries, found that cultural traits such as individualism-collectivism,
          
uncertainty avoidance, power distance and perception of time independently
          
affect creative strategy and tactics.
          
The findings from the last set of studies cited seem to suggest that an
          
interesting and perhaps useful approach to determining the degree of
          
international advertising standardization may be to cluster countries on the
          
basis of their cultural similarities. Sriram and Gopalakrishna (1991) identified
          
six groups of countries and argued that advertising standardization could be
          
attempted within each group by employing similar but not identical advertising
          
messages. Support for this position is provided by Whitelock and Chung (1989)
          
who studied print advertisements for perfume and beauty products in France
          
and the UK, two countries that are classified as dissimilar in cultural terms in
          
the Sriram and Gopalakrishna study (1991). They found little evidence of fully
          
standardized advertising strategies even though the two countries are similar in
          
their stage of economic development. However, Katz and Lee (1992) failed to
          
show that the USA and the UK, two countries considered to be culturally#p#分頁標題#e#
          
similar in the Sriram and Gopalakrishna study, have similarities in advertising
          
messages. They attributed the finding that US television advertisements are
          
“people-oriented” whereas UK advertisements are “product-oriented” to
          
cultural differences. Despite the contradictory empirical findings, searching for
          
bases/criteria to identify clusters of countries within which advertising can be
          
standardized is an intriguing area for future research.
          
Another culturally-oriented factor concerning standardization versus
          
adaptation of international advertising strategies is cross-cultural media habits. In
          
a study comparing US and French consumers’ media habits, it was found that US
          
consumers rely considerably more on television and print advertising than French
          
consumers for information regarding new products and services (Green and
          
Standardization
          
versus
          
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Langeard, 1975). Furthermore, French consumers were reported to watch less
          
television and subscribe to fewer magazines than US consumers. Consequently,
          
differences in media habits found between French and US consumers make the
          
development of different advertising strategies in France and the USA necessary.
          
A more recent study found that compared to consumers in North America, Latin
          
American consumers are exposed to more radio and less print media, while Asian
          
consumers spend the highest proportion of their media time on television, and less
          
on radio and newspapers (World Advertising Expenditures, 1986). As a result, the
          
differences existing among inhabitants of different countries with respect to their
          
media habits may lead to different effectiveness for different media. Finally, Lee
          
and Tse (1994), in their study of changes in the media habits of immigrant
          
consumers, found that though immigrants do not increase their total media
          
consumption, their consumption across different media types follows both
          
assimilation and ethnic affirmation models.
          
Economic conditions
          
The economic conditions prevailing in the host country are of major concern in
          
influencing international strategy (Britt, 1974; Donnelly, 1970; Harvey, 1993;
          
Onkvisit and Shaw, 1987). Dunn (1976) identified 31 environmental variables as
          
important determinants of the transferability of advertising strategies. Among
          
them are many economic-oriented variables, such as rate of economic growth,
          
per capita income and distribution of income, attitudes toward wealth and
          
monetary gain, import duties and quotas, and development and acceptance of
          
international trademarks. Hite and Frazer (1988) surveyed successful US
          
multinational companies to determine the importance of factors influencing the
          
transferability of advertising strategies. Overall, their results substantiated
          
those reported by Dunn (1976). However, they found changes in the relative#p#分頁標題#e#
          
importance of several factors. One of these factors was the rate of economic
          
growth, which seemed to have diminished in importance. Perhaps major world
          
markets and economies had reached a level of “economic similarity” that made
          
the distinction between “rich” and “poor” countries difficult. Kaynak and
          
Mitchell (1981) analysed marketing communication strategies in Turkey, Canada
          
and UK and found them to be influenced significantly by the stage of economic
          
development and other market-based variables of the host country. Finally,
          
James and Hill’s (1991) survey findings suggest that advertising standardization
          
is more likely in less affluent countries than in more affluent countries because of
          
undersupply economies, less competition and less sophisticated consumers.
          
Legal conditions
          
Laws regulating advertising practices differ among countries (Boddewyn, 1981;
          
Harvey, 1993; Jain, 1989). In fact, Harvey (1993) reported that multinational
          
corporations face greater advertising regulation by foreign governments today
          
than ever before. Such laws and regulations can affect the applicability of a
          
standardized advertising strategy. Rau and Preble (1987) suggested that
          
multinational corporations should analyse the host country’s regulatory
          
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policies towards multinational corporations in developing their marketing mix
          
strategies. For example, comparative advertising is not allowed in many
          
countries. Some countries (e.g. France and Germany) have made corrective
          
advertising a standard practice.
          
Competition
          
Only recently has research in international advertising examined the effect of
          
competition on international advertising strategy. Harvey (1993) argued that
          
the industry structure (e.g. oligopoly vs monopoly), the influence of suppliers,
          
the company’s market position (e.g. leader or follower), and the consumers’
          
bargaining power are all important variables that could affect the degree of
          
advertising standardization. In the same vein, Jain (1989) suggested that the
          
presence of local and international competitors may necessitate a higher degree
          
of adaptation simply to match local conditions. Hout et al. (1982) noted that
          
competitive forces may dictate different advertising objectives in different
          
countries, thus precluding advertising standardization. In fact, Porter (1986)
          
suggested that, through competitive analysis, multinational corporations can
          
gain a “competitive advantage” for the role of advertising in their marketing
          
strategies in foreign markets. However, the exact way competition affects the
          
degree of international advertising standardization has not yet been
          
established, and additional empirical research is warranted on this issue.#p#分頁標題#e#
          
Advertising infrastructure
          
The advertising infrastructure of a country consists of the institutions and
          
functions essential to the advertising process, such as availability of media, the
          
structure of media, availability of technical equipment, local advertising
          
experience and staff talent. The availability, performance and cost aspects of
          
the advertising infrastructure can affect the degree of advertising
          
standardization (Harvey, 1993; Jain, 1989; Jif et al., 1984; Shao and Hill, 1992).
          
For example, a company may use television advertisements to reach the
          
target market in one country, but it may be forced to use print media in another,
          
because TV cannot reach the target audience or perhaps because it is too
          
expensive. Peebles et al. (1977) indicated that advertising standardization is
          
most feasible in countries that have a well-developed advertising infrastructure.
          
Similarly, Mueller (1991) found that advertising standardization was more likely
          
for television advertisements than for print advertisements.
          
Consumer profile
          
Consumer profiles encompass the demographic, psychographic, and
          
behavioural characteristics of consumers in the host country (see e.g. Onkvisit
          
and Shaw, 1987). International marketing and advertising strategies have
          
always been based on consumers’ perceptions, attitudes, consumption patterns
          
and usage habits. Basically, all studies in this area have tried to answer the
          
fundamental question of how “homogeneous” consumers are from one country
          
to another in their consumption profiles.
          
Standardization
          
versus
          
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Proponents of the standardization approach assume that consumers are
          
essentially homogeneous across countries because human wants and needs are
          
more or less universal. However, Britt (1974) challenged this assumption by
          
arguing that even though the tangible characteristics of a product may be
          
perceived in the same way by consumers in different countries, the
          
“consumption patterns” of the product may vary widely. Sheth (1983) echoed
          
this view by arguing that international advertising messages depend on
          
customers’ expectations about the product, the operation of the encoding and
          
decoding mechanisms, and silent language differences.
          
Empirical studies in the 1960s and 1970s seem to support these arguments.
          
For example, Green and Langeard (1975) found that French and American
          
innovators differed in their demographic characteristics and media habits for
          
grocery products and retail services. Green et al. (1975) showed that product
          
attributes are perceived differently in terms of their importance by consumers
          
in the USA, France, India and Brazil. In addition, Hornik (1980) noted a lack of
          
perceptual homogeneity by finding major attitude and perception differences
          
between American and Israeli consumer groups receiving the same product#p#分頁標題#e#
          
advertisements. Finally, Kreutzer (1988) developed a framework for “marketing
          
mix standardization” in which he emphasized the importance of the host
          
country and its customers’ identity.
          
However, several scholars have suggested the possibility of identifying welldefined
          
customer groups (intermarket segments) across countries that are
          
similar enough in their consumption profile characteristics to represent a
          
“homogeneous market” and thus make standardized advertising feasible (Jain,
          
1989; Kale and Sudharshan, 1987; Simmonds, 1985). In one such empirical
          
study, Boote (1982) attempted to “segment” consumers in Germany, the UK and
          
France on the basis of their psychographic traits. However, a re-analysis of the
          
data indicated, contrary to Boote’s claims, that the consumer segments in those
          
countries were not similar enough to warrant a standardized advertising
          
approach (Onkvisit and Shaw, 1987). Nevertheless, should the segmentation
          
concept prove to be valid and practical in foreign markets, a company will be
          
able to use a standardized advertising strategy (see e.g. Samiee and Roth, 1992).
          
Country-of-origin image
          
The country-of-origin image concept can assist advertising managers to
          
understand the target market, to make a suitable positioning of the product and to
          
develop effective advertising messages. Three facets (i.e. general country
          
attributes, general product attributes and specific product attributes) describe the
          
current conceptualization of the country-of-origin image (see Parameswaran and
          
Pisharodi, 1994). The first facet is related to attributes about the economic,
          
political and cultural characteristics of the product’s country of origin. The second
          
facet is composed of characteristics regarding the capacity of the country to
          
produce quality products in general. Finally, the third facet relates to attributes,
          
which include product-, marketing-, and firm goodwill- related characteristics of
          
the specific product. Relating to standardization versus adaptation of
          
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international advertising strategies, Parameswaran and Pisharodi (1994) found
          
that the number of facets of the country-of-origin image is principally stable
          
whereas the attributes composing a facet may be country dependent. The result is
          
that the attributes contributing to any particular country-of-origin image facet
          
may differ across countries. Hence, differences among consumers across different
          
host countries in how they evaluate country-of-origin image can be used to guide
          
the development of customized advertising messages. In addition, Lim et al. (1994)
          
found that the presentation format of the country of origin, with or without
          
product attributes, depends on the nature of the product, the target market and the#p#分頁標題#e#
          
level of the image of the country of origin. This presentation format of the country
          
of origin may differ across different host countries; therefore, it can influence the
          
development of a standardized or adapted international advertising strategy.
          
Firm environmental determinants
          
Managerial and financial characteristics
          
Quelch and Hoff (1986) indicated that a company’s business strategy will
          
determine the approach it takes to global marketing/advertising strategies (i.e.
          
whether to standardize or not). In addition, Szymanski et al. (1993) viewed the
          
marketing strategy formulation process in multinational corporations as a
          
series of decisions about overall strategic orientation (standardization vs
          
adaptation), the desired degree of standardization of the strategic resource mix,
          
and the desired degree of standardization of the strategy content.
          
Similarly, Kanso (1992) observed that international managers were either
          
“culturally oriented” (i.e. host-country oriented) or “non-culturally oriented (i.e.
          
home-country oriented) in their international advertising strategies (cf.
          
Perlmutter, 1969). His findings indicate that culturally-oriented executives
          
apply the adaptation approach more than non-culturally-oriented executives.
          
Another organizational factor affecting advertising standardization is the
          
degree to which the firm centralizes/decentralizes its advertising decisions and
          
how much control is exercised over the subsidiary activities (Harvey, 1993; Jain,
          
1989). In the case of complete centralization and control, all decisions about
          
campaign preparation, media selection and budgeting are made in the “home”
          
office. In contrast, complete decentralization implies that all such decisions are
          
made in the host country.
          
Quelch and Hoff (1986) urged that to motivate and retain advertising
          
managerial talent in the host country, a bottom-up (decentralized) approach be
          
used in the development of advertising strategies and budgets. They further
          
suggested that local managers can have an important and critical role in creating
          
new advertising ideas and in establishing relationships with the necessary and
          
appropriate local firms. Aylmer’s (1970) finding that local managers had
          
responsibility for 86 per cent of all advertising decisions seems to support this
          
position. Kanso (1991) provides further support for this argument (cf. Brandt
          
and Huldbert, 1977). In his study of the practices of American multinational
          
corporations in choosing an advertising agency (American vs foreign) in the
          
host country, he found a trend towards decentralization of advertising efforts
          
Standardization
          
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and adaptation to the foreign market. In another study, Schoefield (1991)
          
compared international advertising practices (among them budget-setting#p#分頁標題#e#
          
methods) of firms in the UK and 15 other countries. He did not directly examine
          
whether a centralized or a decentralized advertising budgeting approach was
          
used, but the fact that the objective and task method was most favoured (64 per
          
cent) seems to indicate that an adaptation strategy was used (cf. Synodinos et al.,
          
1989). In sum, when a large power is in the hands of the regional country
          
managers, an adapted or customized advertising strategy is likely to prevail.
          
Finally, the financial condition of the organization will have an effect on
          
international advertising strategy. If the organization experiences difficult
          
financial conditions, in terms of both decreasing sales and/or profits and a bleak
          
economic forecast for the firm, one would expect a shift away from adapted to
          
standardized international advertising strategy. Under tough financial
          
conditions the firm can follow a standardized approach and experience savings
          
in media costs, advertising production costs and advertising illustrative
          
material (Ringlstetter and Skrobarczyk, 1994).
          
Nature of the product
          
The nature of the product is considered to be the most significant factor
          
influencing the degree of international advertising strategy (Harvey, 1993). The
          
product aspects that affect the standardization decision are product type,
          
product involvement, product life cycle and culture-bound appeal.
          
Boddewyn et al. (1986), reporting data from a longitudinal study of US
          
companies’ marketing practices in the European Economic Community, found
          
standardized advertising messages to be more feasible for industrial goods than
          
for consumer goods. Culter and Javalgi (1994) found that, in principle, businessto-
          
business advertising has greater potential for standardized global advertising
          
and only in the area of the executional elements (creative tactics) can we have
          
some adaptation across different host countries. In the consumer goods category,
          
standardization is considered to be more applicable for durable products than for
          
non-durable products because the latter appeal to tastes, habits and customs that
          
are thought to be unique in each society (Douglas and Urban, 1977). Empirical
          
evidence for this position comes from two studies. First, Farley (1986) concluded
          
from his meta-analysis that durable goods are “relatively advertising
          
insensitive” (i.e. suitable for advertising standardization) in comparison with
          
non-durable goods. Second, Sandler and Shani (1992) surveyed Canadian
          
consumer goods firms about their advertising practices and found advertising to
          
be standardized more for durable than for non-durable goods.
          
According to Zaichkowsky (1986), product involvement has important
          
implications for developing advertising strategies and messages. A consumer
          
goods product category may consist of high-involvement products or lowinvolvement#p#分頁標題#e#
          
products (Taylor, 1981). High-involvement products are viewed as
          
more important, more expensive, more ego related, and higher risk than lowinvolvement
          
products. Advertisements for high-involvement products tend to
          
use rational appeals, whereas those for low-involvement products seem to use
          
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emotional appeals (Petty et al., 1981; Traylor, 1981; Weinberger and Spotts, 1989).
          
Hence, using a standardized advertising strategy for high-involvement products
          
may not be feasible because more information (than for low-involvement
          
products) must be provided and it may need to be tailored to specific target
          
segments across different markets. Only one recent study examined how product
          
involvement influences international advertising standardization (Mueller, 1991).
          
The findings do not demonstrate different levels of advertising standardization
          
for high and low involvement products. Clearly, more empirical research is
          
needed on this issue before definite conclusions can be drawn.
          
A third aspect of the product influencing the degree of advertising
          
standardization is the stage of the product life cycle (PLC) in international
          
markets. Rau and Preble (1987) argued that standardization would be most
          
feasible for a product which is at the same stage of its PLC in different foreign
          
markets. For example, a product that is at the maturity stage of its PLC in one
          
foreign market, and at the introductory stage of its PLC in another, requires
          
different advertising strategies for those markets. Clearly, in this case, a
          
standardized advertising strategy would be totally inappropriate. However,
          
because empirical research is lacking in this area, the theoretical arguments
          
have not been substantiated.
          
The last product aspect that affects advertising standardization is the
          
product’s appeal in each foreign culture. In general, researchers have pointed
          
out that when a product is “culture-bound” (i.e. different product attributes
          
appeal to different cultures), standardization is inappropriate (see, for example,
          
Dunn, 1976; James and Hill, 1991; Kanso, 1992; Onkvisit and Shaw, 1987). Even
          
the same product attributes that seem appealing across different foreign
          
markets cannot be generalized because they are likely to differ in their level of
          
importance in those markets.
          
Intrinsic determinants
          
International advertising objectives
          
Concerning the objectives of advertising information and memorability, a single
          
advertising message with only minor modifications, or even advertisements with
          
proper translations, can be used in all countries to reach consumers. Sufficient
          
consideration of specific peculiarities is not very important to meet the
          
objectives of advertising information and memorability. Following the same#p#分頁標題#e#
          
objective across different countries, a simplification in the planning process takes
          
place and, consequently, a reduction in the planning and development costs of
          
advertising. In addition, a better co-ordination and control of the international
          
advertising campaign is possible, while comparisons can easily be made among
          
the different regional areas regarding the effectiveness of advertising.
          
In relation to persuasiveness, separate messages should be used to reach
          
consumers in different markets by fitting the message to each particular country.
          
To meet the objective of persuasiveness better, cultural, economic, legal, media (e.g.
          
great differences in the media scene and in the conditions of the creative structure),
          
and product (e.g. different conditions regarding product usage, differences in
          
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product positioning, different phases in the product life cycle, etc.) dissimilarities
          
must be taken into consideration as our previous discussion suggests.
          
However, there may be reasons for the advertiser to develop an international
          
standardized advertising strategy when persuasiveness is the objective. Some
          
main reasons can be: similarities in the target groups, similarities in product
          
positioning, transnational use of good ideas and transfer of know-how,
          
tendencies to centralization in the management of the international firm,
          
increased mobility of consumers, internationalization of competition, use of
          
media overlapping and limited knowledge of the regional markets on the part of
          
the central advertising agency. Finally, in the context of advertising, we have to
          
examine the economic function of advertising across different countries. When
          
this function is similar (i.e. information about products and services, where they
          
are available, what benefits they offer to consumers and so on), we can
          
standardize the advertising strategy (Johansson, 1994).
          
Relationship between multinational advertiser and agency(ies)
          
The advertising environment characteristics such as types of product and
          
service, advertising expenditures per capita, government control of advertising,
          
availability of commercial breaks during programmes, shortage of advertising
          
personnel and presence of advertising agencies were found to influence the nature
          
of television advertising messages independently (Zandpour et al., 1994). Hence,
          
these characteristics are very important in the context of the relationship between
          
multinational advertiser and advertising agency. This environment determines
          
the criteria for the selection of an advertising agency and the consequent
          
collaboration between multinational advertiser and advertising agency.
          
The availability of sufficient institutions and functions in the host country is
          
a very crucial factor the advertiser must consider regarding the adaptation of#p#分頁標題#e#
          
an international advertising strategy. In addition, the previous experience of
          
both advertiser and advertising agency with respect to the knowledge of how to
          
handle the barriers hindering international advertising standardization is also a
          
very important factor, since transnational integration means exchanging
          
experience and worthwhile concepts among different regional areas.
          
As an example, consider the “soft-sell” phenomenon in Japan. This approach
          
to advertising relates to the special nature of the advertising agency business in
          
this country. The typical western advertising agency is independent of the
          
media. Furthermore, the typical western advertising agency considers it
          
unethical to have, as clients, firms competing in the same markets. In contrast,
          
advertising agencies in Japan do not face these limitations. They have a direct
          
influence on the media. Moreover, they customarily maintain business
          
relationships with competing advertisers. The consequence of this institutional
          
set-up is that in considering the long-established relationships with competitive
          
clients, it can be difficult to proclaim one client’s advantage over another.
          
Another effect of the institutional set-up in Japan is a stronger position of the
          
agency vis-à-vis its clients than in the west. Taking also into account that
          
advertisers seldom have managers with a formal business school education, who
          
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therefore are professionally less assertive than their western counterparts, it is
          
expected that the agencies may dictate what the advertising should look like. As
          
a result, a Japanese advertising agency has a greater freedom as regards creative
          
strategy than a western agency. But this freedom is difficult to reproduce abroad
          
where the power of the agency over the media is much weaker (Johansson, 1994).
          
Creative strategy
          
The creative advertising strategy is the overall policy/principle that determines
          
the general nature and character of the advertising messages (Frazer, 1983). Simon
          
(1971) developed the following set of ten different creative strategies: information,
          
argument, motivation with psychological appeals, repeated assertion, command,
          
brand familiarization, symbolic association, imitation, obligation, and habitstating.
          
In the relevant literature there are only three empirical studies which,
          
based on Simon’s classification, examined whether the creative advertising
          
strategy can influence the degree of international advertising standardization.
          
Reid et al. (1985) showed some differences between US and winning
          
international Clio television advertisements that prohibited the use of a
          
standardized advertising message. Similarly, Martenson (1987) found creative
          
differences between US and Swedish advertisements. Zandpour et al. (1992)#p#分頁標題#e#
          
results of television advertisements from the USA, France and Taiwan indicated
          
clear differences in creative strategies, making a standardized advertising
          
message inappropriate. In addition, the slow change from mass marketing to
          
niche marketing demands customized communication strategies.
          
In general, though, advertising can be classified in two totally different forms:
          
rational and emotional advertising (Rossiter and Percy, 1988, p. 172). Rational
          
advertising includes important information for the consumer (i.e. the description
          
of features of the product). In contrast, emotional advertising appeals to feelings
          
and pleasure, which are related to the advertised products. In rational
          
advertising, information about the product is very important and advertising is
          
directed mainly towards the mind. The advertising content is mainly based on
          
the vocabulary of everyday language. This means that people’s perception in
          
different regional areas differ and, consequently, adaptation of advertising in
          
that case is necessary. On the other hand, in emotional advertising mood
          
(atmosphere) is very important. Image and comprehensibility are not very
          
crucial factors. Yet, elements of advertising strongly related to fashionable and
          
technologically superior ideas can be standardized because these elements can
          
have a transnational character (Rinner-Kawai, 1993).
          
In sum, the development of a basic advertising campaign (i.e. formal
          
construction and slogan) with country-specific adaptations is very important,
          
especially when there are great linguistic differences across different host
          
countries (Schmitt et al., 1994).
          
Media strategy
          
In the international context, the media scene within different countries is
          
characterized by a considerable heterogeneity because the number and type of
          
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media differ from one country to another and different media have different
          
significance, different target groups, and different reach, as well as frequency, in
          
each country (Albaum et al., 1990, p. 327; Meffert and Althans, 1992, p. 141). This
          
difference in media patterns is due to cultural, sociological, economic and even
          
psychological differences among countries. In the developed countries, the great
          
majority of the population read a daily newspaper. In contrast, in countries
          
characterized by low educational levels and low consumer income, readership of
          
the press is limited to a small part of the market in the middle and upper socioeconomic
          
groups. As for magazines, in Europe there is a great number of
          
consumer magazines, each having a very limited circulation compared to the
          
national magazines in the USA. Technical and business magazines do not exist
          
in many world markets. Often either the lack of periodicals or the small
          
circulation of many periodicals are the reasons that multinational advertisers#p#分頁標題#e#
          
rely less heavily on these than they would otherwise prefer.
          
Radio is an important advertising medium for products with a wide market.
          
Radio is used more in Latin America than in Europe because of European
          
restrictions on radio advertising. This medium is very important for markets
          
characterized by a low rate of literacy and low consumer income. Finally,
          
television is an important advertising medium for a few world markets only.
          
Television is most effective when it operates with a minimum of restrictions.
          
Yet, certain countries, in which television is government-owned (e.g. Sweden
          
and Italy), impose severe restrictions on TV advertising which can limit its
          
effectiveness. In other countries, television can reach only a relatively small
          
percentage of the market (Albaum et al., 1990, pp. 329-31).
          
The above discussion clearly suggests that developing an international
          
standardized media strategy can be a very difficult, if not an impossible, task.
          
Finally, we need to consider two additional factors pertaining to media
          
strategy: international media and the overlapping of certain national media in
          
other countries (Albaum et al., 1990, pp. 327-33; Meffert and Althans, 1992,
          
p. 143). By international media it is meant the media that circulate, or are heard or
          
watched, in two or more nations. The international print media (e.g. Business
          
Week) and the international broadcast media (e.g. Radio Luxembourg, Radio
          
Monte Carlo) are considered credible sources of information for world-marketed
          
products. Concerning television, more specifically, satellite transmission has
          
created the potential for an expanded use of television as an international
          
medium (e.g. CNN, Pan-European TV stations). Therefore, the continuous and
          
increasing presence of international media may prove to be useful in developing a
          
uniform or at least a harmonious image in a number of relevant foreign markets.
          
The other important factor within the context of international media selection
          
is the overlapping of certain national media in other countries – that is, certain
          
national media can be used for purely technical reasons in other countries (the
          
use of TV programmes from neighbouring countries). Hence, a multinational
          
advertiser can use the effect of such free-of-charge contacts to advertise products
          
in neighbouring countries (e.g. from Germany to Austria and Switzerland, from
          
France to Belgium, from Belgium to Luxembourg and The Netherlands).
          
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Other elements of the communication mix
          
As far as the interaction of advertising with other elements of the communication
          
mix is concerned, there are certain international firms which try to develop a
          
standardized communication mix (advertising, sales promotion, packaging) in all
          
countries where they operate. The reason is that these companies place an#p#分頁標題#e#
          
emphasis on integrated communications to produce a co-ordinated
          
communications effort (Zinkhan, 1994). These firms aim at international product
          
and company image based on the standardization of their communication mix or
          
aim at transferring their profitable national communication mix overseas. The
          
key objective of the firms aiming at international product and company image is
          
to have a very strong intellectual presence in the markets of all countries in which
          
they operate. In this case, a standardized communication mix can increase the
          
contacts with the brand name and the trademark.
          
Support activities and barriers
          
In relation to the barriers preventing and the support activities helping to meet
          
the advertising objectives, effective advertising standardization has qualities
          
similar to good advertising decision making in any other context: clear strategic
          
vision, access to reliable information, flexibility in implementation and
          
willingness to give up once successful strategies when the market and
          
competitive conditions change. In the absence of such qualities, advertising
          
standardization is no longer a competitive tool.
          
The chances of improving advertising effectiveness depend on similarities
          
among different national markets. These similarities are to be found mainly in the
          
basic institutional and cultural conditions. Taking into account these similarities
          
and the effects of the experience curves leads to economies of scale in the context
          
of both the development of either a standardized or an adapted international
          
advertising strategy and the simplification of planning complexity. Barriers arise
          
from the heterogeneity in consumer needs. This heterogeneity is an important
          
reason for adapting the advertising strategy and it causes planning complexity
          
(Ringlstetter and Skrobarczyk, 1994). In this context, the phenomenon of “silent
          
language” is very important. The term “silent language” refers to communication
          
signals, which generally take place in the non-verbal sector. These
          
communication signals are the role (status) of the family, friendship, free time,
          
etc., and the way these matters are realized. Experience about these phenomena,
          
not only on the part of the advertiser but also on the part of the advertising
          
agency, is very important as regards standardizing or adapting the international
          
advertising strategy (Meffert and Althans, 1992, p. 140).
          
The international advertising strategy continuum
          
The consideration of international advertising also involves examination of
          
international advertising strategies and tactics. These strategies are the result
          
of an analysis of the “local”, “firm”, and “intrinsic” determinants. The resulted
          
advertising strategies and tactics are represented on a continuum with different#p#分頁標題#e#
          
degrees of adaptation (see Figure 2), which can document a relationship
          
between the above-mentioned factors and advertising effectiveness.
          
Standardization
          
versus
          
adaptation
          
519
          
Figure 2.
          
Bases of the
          
international
          
advertising strategy
          
continuum
          
Low involvement situation regarding
          
product, consumer, media, message,
          
buying situation and company decision
          
making/problem solving characterized
          
by similarities of cultural,
          
economic, consumer profile, legal
          
and media scene conditions, low culturally-
          
oriented strategic position,
          
high centralization of decision making,
          
more industrial products than
          
consumer products and consumer
          
durable products, products at the
          
same stage of PLC, non-culturebound
          
products, low local and international
          
competition, well-developed
          
advertising infrastructure in the host
          
countries, difficulties in the financial
          
position of the firm, information and
          
memorability as advertising objectives,
          
high experience of the advertiser
          
and of the advertising agency in
          
handling the barriers hindering international
          
advertising standardization,
          
small power in the hands of the
          
regional country-managers, high
          
overlapping of national media,
          
strong orientation towards a standardized
          
communication-mix, presence
          
of clear strategic vision, access
          
to reliable information, economies of
          
scale, and absence of differences in
          
communication signals in the nonverbal
          
sector.
          
High involvement situation regarding
          
product, consumer, media, message,
          
buying situation and company
          
decision making/problem solving
          
characterized by the presence of the
          
opposite-end mentioned factors –
          
but in the opposite direction.
          
®
          
® ®
          
¬ ® ¬
          
¬ ¬
          
STANDARDIZATION
          
OF
          
CREATIVE
          
STRATEGY
          
AN
          
D
          
TACTICS
          
ADAPTATION
          
OF
          
CREATIVE
          
STRATEGY
          
AN
          
D
          
TACTICS
          
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One polar end of the international advertising strategy continuum is the
          
complete standardization of creative strategy and tactics. It can take place in the
          
international advertising industry when mainly:
          
• there is a great similarity in cultural environment across different countries;
          
• there is a great similarity in the economic conditions across different
          
countries;
          
• there is no great uniqueness in the consumer profile across different
          
countries;
          
• the strategic orientation of the corporation is not very culturally-oriented;
          
• the decision-making process of the organization is very centrally controlled;
          
• it is more about industrial products more than about consumer products#p#分頁標題#e#
          
and consumer durable products;
          
• the products are at the same stage of PLC across different countries;
          
• it is about non-culture-bound products than culture-bound products;
          
• there is a great similarity of legal conditions across different countries;
          
• the presence of local and international competition is not high in the host
          
countries;
          
• a well-developed advertising infrastructure exists in the host countries;
          
• the organization experiences great difficulties with respect to its
          
financial position;
          
• the objectives of advertising are centred on information and memorability
          
rather than persuasiveness;
          
• the previous experience of advertiser and of advertising agency on how to
          
handle the barriers hindering the international advertising standardization
          
is high;
          
• little power is in the hands of the regional country-managers;
          
• there is a great similarity in the media scene across different countries;
          
• there is a high degree of overlapping regarding the number of national
          
media across different countries;
          
• there is a high degree of orientation with respect to the development of a
          
standardized communication mix across different countries; and
          
• there is, to a great extent, a presence of support activities (e.g. clear
          
strategic vision, access to reliable information, economies of scales, etc.)
          
and an absence of barriers (e.g. great difference in communication
          
signals in the non-verbal sector, etc.).
          
The above mean that all these determinants support the use of the same
          
advertising concept or theme (creative strategy) and the same way in which the
          
creative strategy is expressed or “executed” in the finished advertisements
          
Standardization
          
versus
          
adaptation
          
521
          
(creative tactics) across different countries. A requirement for this strategy state
          
is that we have exactly the same product across different countries and the
          
product has an internationally well-known name which differentiates it
          
strongly from competitors. In addition, consumer involvement in the purchase
          
decision-making process is very low. This implies that the elements of creative
          
strategy and tactics are basically emotional, having a strong international/
          
global character. Supporting advertisements which remind the consumer about
          
the product are appropriate in this case.
          
The opposite polar end of the international advertising strategy continuum
          
is complete adaptation of creative strategy and tactics. Specified conditions of
          
this state are that:
          
(1) it is, first, about consumer non-durable products and, second, about
          
consumer durable products rather than industrial products;
          
(2) advertising objectives centre on persuasiveness rather than information
          
and memorability; and#p#分頁標題#e#
          
(3) all the other determinants, which are mentioned in the standardized
          
state, exist in a high degree but in the opposite direction.
          
This means that all these determinants make the use of different creative
          
strategies and tactics across different countries necessary. A requirement of this
          
strategy state is that we have:
          
(1) exactly the same product across different countries, but in different
          
stages of the PLC;
          
(2) a product relaunch in certain host countries on the basis of changes in
          
the product;
          
(3) an introduction of a new product in certain host countries; and
          
(4) a geographical expansion of the market.
          
In addition, consumer involvement in the purchase decision-making process is
          
very high. This implies that we have not only emotional but also rational
          
elements in the creative strategy. The kinds of advertising appropriate in this
          
case are expansion and introductory advertising.
          
Obviously, moving from one polar end of standardization to the other polar
          
end of adaptation indicates a strategy continuum. Of course, this
          
conceptualization, in turn, raises the question of the different ways and degrees
          
international advertising strategies and tactics can be adapted, as one moves
          
from “complete” standardization to “complete” adaptation. To answer this
          
question, one needs to consider the specific elements (i.e. creative strategy and
          
creative tactics) that can be adapted along this continuum. Hence, we can
          
describe the route one can take along this continuum, from left (i.e. complete
          
standardization) to right (i.e. complete adaptation), by reviewing the variations
          
in the adaptation elements of international advertising.
          
We take consumer involvement in the purchase decision-making process as
          
the main variable of our approach, because involvement can nowadays be
          
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considered as the most important factor in this process (Papavassiliou, 1988;
          
1989). Involvement, in general, has to do with the personal value system of the
          
buyer. In this regard, the previously discussed factors (i.e. environmental
          
influences, individual differences, psychological processes and product
          
influences, as well as media and message influences), which influence the
          
development of international advertising strategies and tactics, are basically
          
expressed through this personal value system. Therefore, moving away from the
          
complete standardization end of the continuum, consumer involvement in the
          
purchase decision-making process is rather low and consumer behaviour is
          
strongly emotional. The consumer does not actively search for and process
          
information because it is too trivial for him/her. Thus, creative strategy and
          
tactics are emotional and could be introduced as they are in another country,#p#分頁標題#e#
          
although within the same region. Regional considerations are important because
          
certain emotions (e.g. humour, sadness) may have universal appeal, and thus can
          
be standardized. Other emotions, though (e.g. love), may be characterized by
          
strong regional aspects and, hence, need to be adapted so as to avoid taboos.
          
Moving forward on the continuum, creative strategy continues to be
          
emotional (with regional aspects) and can be still standardized. Creative tactics,
          
though, may need to be adapted either to different regions or even to each local
          
market/country again to avoid taboos in some countries.
          
As we continue moving on the continuum, the extent of consumer
          
involvement (i.e. product involvement, personal involvement, media and
          
message involvement, and buying situation involvement) in the purchase
          
decision-making process starts increasing. This means that even though
          
creative strategy and tactics can continue to be emotional, with regional
          
considerations, limited attention to some product features (e.g. product name)
          
may need to take place and be adapted to either regional or country aspects.
          
There is usually a slight improvement in creative strategy and tactics as well as
          
in the availability and quality of media.
          
Stepping forward on the continuum, consumer involvement in the purchase
          
decision-making process is middling. The consumer actively searches and
          
processes some information, to a limited extent though. Thus, the content of the
          
advertising message starts becoming important. This means that creative
          
strategy and tactics also need to consider a moderate number of product
          
characteristics (i.e. rational appeals) which – like the emotional appeals – may
          
differ across regions or even countries. There are also a greater number of media
          
which are also of better quality. Better quality also characterizes creative
          
strategy and tactics.
          
Reaching now close to the full adaptation end of the continuum, consumer
          
involvement in the purchase decision-making process is high. The consumer
          
actively searches and processes information which is of interest and importance
          
to him/her. Hence, the content of the advertising message is as important as the
          
emotional element. This indicates that creative strategy and tactics also need to
          
use the “chunking” of information which – like the emotional elements – may
          
differ for the same product across regions or even countries. This also suggests
          
Standardization
          
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adaptation
          
523
          
that there is wide availability of media which are of high quality. Furthermore,
          
there is wide availability of creative strategy and tactics that are characterized by
          
the high quality of the cognitive and aesthetic value of the advertising message.
          
Therefore, the notion of the international advertising strategy continuum#p#分頁標題#e#
          
can be considered as the move from “massive” advertising to “niche”
          
advertising. In massive advertising, remembering the product name is very
          
important. For this reason the objective is high exposure of the message to
          
maintain audience attention and to become well known. In niche advertising,
          
remembering not only the product name but also product features is very
          
important. For this reason the objective is high exposure and recall of the
          
message, not only to maintain audience attention and become well-known but
          
also to communicate new ideas. This is achieved by means of high quality
          
media and message techniques aiming at obtaining a functional and emotional
          
profile of the product suitable for each host country.
          
In sum, the preceding discussion indicates that among the standardization and
          
adaptation states of international advertising. there are a number of variations of
          
the adaptation elements which are appropriate to different situations.
          
Conclusion
          
The basic intent of this article was to develop a comprehensive picture of
          
advertising standardization or the degree of adaptation decisions in international
          
markets. We developed a conceptual framework by integrating relevant
          
theoretical and empirical research studies reported in the relevant literature. Our
          
framework links local and organizational environmental determinants as well as
          
intrinsic determinants to the international advertising strategies and tactics
          
continuum (i.e. ways and degrees of advertising adaptation). We identified
          
variables within each of the areas of influence and we showed how they have a
          
predictive role in shaping the ways and degrees of advertising adaptation. Then,
          
we noted that the degree of presence or absence of these variables determines the
          
resulted advertising strategies and tactics continuum.
          
The research ideas discussed in this study should answer, from the
          
managerial point of view, one of the most important questions in the area of
          
international advertising. That is, which key variables and relationships affect
          
the development of specific advertising strategies and tactics regarding the
          
degree of advertising adaptation? We hope our analysis provides clear
          
guidelines to advertising managers in designing their international advertising
          
strategies and tactics.
          
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