留學生dissertation網：服務國際化戰略Internationalizatio

Internationalization strategies for services
Christian GroÈnroos
Professor of Marketing, CERS Center for Relationship Marketing and Service Management, Hanken Swedish School of Economics,
Helsinki, Finland
Keywords Services marketing, International marketing, Market entry, Marketing strategy
Abstract Discusses some key challenges for service firms planning to go abroad andpresents five different types of internationalization strategies for services, none of whichare mutually exclusive. These 留學生dissertation網are: direct export of services in terms of repairs andmaintenance that are most appropriate to industrial markets; systems export that is ajoint export effort by two or several firms whose solutions complement each other; directentry mode which means that the service firm establishes a service-producingorganization of its own on the foreign market; indirect entry which is used when theservice firm wants to avoid establishing a local operation that is totally or partly ownedby itself (common modes are through licensing agreements and franchising); andelectronic marketing which does not bind a firm to a particular location.
Introduction
Traditionally, services have been thought of as locally produced solutions,and service firms have been considered local establishments. Althoughservices still, to a large extent, are produced by small and local firms, servicebusinesses have become more international. The service sector is expandingover national borders. The Uruguay Round and the 1993 General Agreementon Tariffs and Trade Agreement (GATT) have lowered barriers forinternational trade with services. A rapid globalization of the world economyduring the 1990s, which probably will continue in the next millennium, hasincreased the opportunities for marketing services abroad (Hassan andKaynak, 1994). Indeed, services are the fastest growing part of internationaltrade (Bradley, 1995). However, for example, in the USA the export ofservices still accounts for an astonishingly small proportion of total serviceproduction, only around 6 percent in 1997, in spite of a growth of nearly
30 percent since the beginning of the decade (Winstead and Patterson, 1998).In the European Union between 10 and 20 percent of the service productionwas exported already almost ten years ago (cf. Dahringer, 1991). Accordingto Winstead and Patterson (1998), the relatively slow growth of theinternationalization of service, in spite of the improved free-trade conditions,depends on the existence of significant non-tariff barriers in many serviceindustries and the complex nature of service production as well as on a beliefamong practitioners in service businesses that it is difficult to marketservices outside domestic markets. They also state that more generalobstacles for internationalization, which are true for manufactured goods aswell, keep service firms from going abroad. Such obstacles are a lack ofresources, too little knowledge about exporting and a belief that linguisticand cultural differences will make internationalization too demanding. Thepurpose of this article is to discuss some key#p#分頁標題#e#留學生畢業dissertationchallenges for service firmsplanning to go abroad and to present five different types ofinternationalization strategies for services.The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
http://www.emerald-library.com
Relatively slow growth
290 JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 4/5 1999, pp. 290-297, # MCB UNIVERSITY PRESS, 0887-6045
An executive summary formanagers and executivereaders can be found at theend of this issue
The internationalization challenge
A traditional way for service firms to start going abroad is to follomanufacturers that they are supplying with services in their domesticmarkets. When their clients internationalize, they get an opportunity to goalong and sometimes almost are forced to do so (Weinstein, 1977;Vandermerwe and Chadwick, 1989). For example, in studies of the bankingand advertising industries, following clients was found to be a major reasonfor internationalizing (Nigh et al., 1986; Terpstra and Yu, 1988). Now, waysof internationalizing services have become more diverse as, for example, thedevelopment of new technologies for electronic commerce has madeservices less dependant on local operations (Winsted and Patterson, 1998).Most of the literature on internationalization, international marketing andexport strategies is geared to the needs of the manufacturing sector. In manystudies of manufacturing firms, for example, the impact on export behaviorof firm characteristics such as size, age, ownership and sales has beeninvestigated (e.g. Burton and Schlegelmilch, 1987; Cavusgil and Nevin,1981). However, in a recently reported study by Javalgi et al. (1998) suchfirm characteristics do not seem to differentiate exporting service businessesfrom non-exporting. Even in 1990, Erramilli and Rao (1990) noticed that weknow very little about how service firms enter foreign markets, and theirobservation holds true even today. ``For international services, theory lagspractice by a considerable degree'' (Clark et al., 1996, p. 9). It is a fact thatinternational marketing of services is becoming a considerable part of totalservice marketing. The academic community has a responsibility to fill theknowledge gap that exists today.In the literature on international marketing of services, aninternationalization strategy is often considered more risky for service firmsthan for manufacturers of goods (Carman and Langeard, 1980). One reasonfor this is that in many services the producer and the production facilities are
part of the service, which requires that the firm has greater control of itsresources than would otherwise be the case (Palmer and Cole, 1995). In
traditional international marketing models focusing on the needs ofmanufacturing firms, the internationalization process can start in a minorscale using indirect export channels followed by a step-by-step movetowards more direct channels. This enables the firm gradually to increase itsunderstanding of quality expectations, personnel requirements, distributionand media structures, and buying behavior peculiarities on the foreignmarket. For service firms the situation is different. One way or the other, itimmediately faces all this and other problems related to entering a foreignmarket, (Carman and Langeard, 1980). It has to find an entry mode and astrategy that helps it to cope with this situation as well as possible. Thechoice of course depends on the type of service and market.#p#分頁標題#e#
General entry modesIn the literature it has been suggested that the choice of entry mode forservice firms when going abroad is either to follow existing clients whenthey internationalize or to look actively for new markets (Erramilli and Rao,1990; see also Majkgard and Sharma, 1998). Today, however, thetechnological advancements, as far as for example the Internet and satelliteand digital television are concerned, have created totally new forms ofinternationalization. In many cases going abroad is not a choice of theservice firm any more. Potential customers on foreign markets pick upservice offers for a http://www.mythingswp7.com/dissertation_writing/domestic market and require the firm to deliverinternationally as well. Satellite television and especially the Internet haveMost of the literaturegeared to themanufacturing sectorNew forms ofinternationalization
JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 4/5 1999 291
opened up services for consumers wherever these have access to those
technologies. Of course the firm can choose to ignore foreign interest in its
offerings, and perhaps lose new markets of considerable size, or it can
sometimes unexpectedly find itself an international service provider.
Specialty retailing, such as book stores and fitness equipment, are examples
of services that in this way have become international.
Hence, we can identify three general entry modes for service firms going into
foreign markets:
(1) client-following mode;
(2) market-seeking mode; and
(3) electronic marketing mode.
Of course, the three types of entry modes are not totally mutually exclusive.
A firm using the Internet as a form of electronic marketing mode can do this
deliberately to get access to international markets. This entry mode is, thus,
at the same time market seeking. Also, a firm following a client abroad may
have decided to take this opportunity to seek new markets actively.
Internationalization and the diversity of services
In the literature there has been a discussion about whether the
internationalization of services and goods differ from each other. Some
authors claim that the same factors influence the choice of entry mode by
service firms and manufacturers of goods (e.g. Terpstra and Yu, 1988;
Agarwal and Ramaswami, 1992). For example, Agarwal and Ramaswami
(1992) studied the choice of entry mode by equipment-leasing service
providers as compared to manufacturers of goods and found no differences.
The reason for this may be that this type of service does not require
permanent local presence in a foreign market (Ekeledo and Sivkumar, 1998).
However, other authors claim that entry modes for manufactured goods
cannot as such be transferred to services (e.g. Erramilli, 1990; Erramilli and
Rao, 1993). Others again conclude that the basic process of entering foreign#p#分頁標題#e#
markets is the same for service firms as for manufacturers, whereas the
implementation of this process differs between these two types of firms
(Sharma and Johanson, 1987; Dunning, 1993).
Erramilli (1990) has divided services for foreign markets into hard services
(e.g. architectural design, education, life insurance and music) and soft
services (e.g. food service, health care, laundry and lodging). Hard services
require limited or no local presence by the exporter and consumption can, to
a major extent, be separated from production. Conversely, soft services
production and consumption are to a major extent simultaneous processes,
and such services require major local presence by the service firm or a
representative that acts on its behalf. Services are of course very diverse,
ranging from what Erramilli labels hard services to soft services and include
a range of services somewhere in between. Following Erramilli's typology,
Ekeledo and Sivakumar (1998) propose that the foreign market entry mode
does not differ significantly between hard services and manufactured goods,
whereas it differs significantly between hard services and soft services.
In this article we do not intend to distinguish between various types of
services, and certainly not go into a normally unfruitful discussion about
whether there are differences between services and goods. What we see
today is that a growing number of manufacturing industries have to
vitalize the service elements of their offerings or add new services to
Hard and soft services
292 JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 4/5 1999
goods-based offerings in order to stay competitive. Hence, more and more
firms are becoming dependent on their understanding of how to manage
services and on their service management skills. Indeed, the line between
services and manufactured goods is becoming very blurred. The knowledge
of how to manage manufacturing firms and how to manage service firms,
respectively, are merging; however, in terms of services, not goods as it used
to be. In another context we have coined the term ``service competition'' for
this new emerging type of competitive situation facing an ever-growing
number of industries on domestic as well as international markets (GroÈnroos,
1990a). Hence, in reality, more and more firms and industries are becoming
service firms and service industries.
In the following sections of this article we discuss a typology of international
marketing modes for services, regardless of whether some of these modes fit
some types of services better than other types, and regardless of whether, as
far as the internationalization issue is concerned, some of these modes do or
do not distinguish services from manufactured goods.
Making services accessible abroad
A service firm that plans to start to market its services internationally has to#p#分頁標題#e#
find a way of making its services accessible in the chosen foreign market.
Once this has been done, a local service offering has to be developed in the
new market (GroÈnroos, 1990b). Regardless of how much of the service can
be produced in a back office on the home market, some of the service
offering is always produced locally. This is true even for electronicallymarketed
services. If nothing else, the local postal system becomes the final
local link in the service system.
Five main strategies for internationalizing services can be distinguished.
These are not mutually exclusive, and in some cases some of them will work
well for manufactured goods as well:
(1) direct export;
(2) systems export;
(3) direct entry;
(4) indirect entry; and
(5) electronic marketing.
Export strategies
Direct export of services may basically take place on industrial markets.
Consultants and firms repairing and maintaining valuable equipment may
have their base on the domestic market and whenever needed move the
resources and system required to produce the service to the client abroad.
Repair services on valuable equipment are often exported in this way. Some
consultants work in a similar fashion. No step-by-step learning can take
place as the service has to be produced immediately. Because of this, the risk
of making mistakes can be substantial.
Systems export is a joint export effort by two or more firms whose solutions
complement each others. A service firm may support a goods-exporting firm
or another service firm. For example, when a manufacturer delivers
equipment or turn-key factories to international buyers, a need for
engineering services, distribution, cleaning, security and other services is
often present. This gives service firms an opportunity to expand their
markets abroad. As the literature suggests, systems export is the traditional
Five main strategies
Opportunity to expand
markets abroad
JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 4/5 1999 293
mode for service export. For example, advertising agencies and banks have
extended their accessibility abroad because of their clients' activities on
international markets. In systems export the services are mainly marketed in
industrial markets abroad.
Entry strategies
Direct entry means that the service firm establishes a service-producing
organization of its own on the foreign market. For manufactured goods in the
first stage of a learning process, a sales office can be such an organization.
For a service firm, a local organization normally has to be able to produce
and deliver the service from the beginning. The time for learning becomes
short. Almost from day one the firm has to be able to cope with problems
with production, human resource management and consumer behavior. In#p#分頁標題#e#
addition, the local government may consider the new, international service
provider a threat to local firms and even to national pride.
In order to decrease the potential problems with a direct entry strategy,
instead of establishing a new organization of its own the internationalizing
firm can acquire a local firm operating on the same service market. This way
one gets access to knowledge about the market as well as about how to
manage the service operation in the foreign environment. A central issue in
such an acquisition is to keep the key people in the acquired firm. Without
them the internationalizing service firm may easily find itself in the same
position as when establishing a totally new operation.
Another option is to form a joint venture with a local firm, which offers the
local partner new growth opportunities at the same time as it gives the
international partner much-needed local know-how. Direct entry can be used
for internationalizing consumer services as well as services for industrial
markets. The same goes for the rest of the internationalizing strategies
discussed in this article.
Indirect entry is used when the service firm wants to avoid establishing a
local operation that is totally or partly owned by itself. Nevertheless, the firm
wants to establish a permanent operation in the foreign market. A consulting
firm can, for example, through a licensing agreement give a local firm
exclusive rights to use the professional concept of the firm. This of course
requires that exclusive rights can be guaranteed. In the lodging business and
in the restaurant and food service industries; franchising is an often used
concept for indirect entry into a foreign market. Local service firms get the
exclusive right to a marketing concept, which also may include rights to a
certain operational mode, and in this way the concept can be replicated as
much as existing demand allows all over the foreign market. The
internationalizing firm as the franchisor gets the local knowledge which the
franchisees possess, whereas franchisees get an opportunity to grow with a
new and perhaps well-established concept.
In a sense, franchising resembles indirect export of manufactured goods,
where the exporter makes use of middlemen on the local market who have
the local knowledge needed to penetrate the market. Another form of indirect
entry is management contracts, which often are used, for example, in the
lodging business.
As far as the need for market knowledge is concerned, indirect entry is
probably the least risky of the internationalization strategies discussed so far.
Conversely, the internationalizing firm's control over the foreign operations
is normally more limited when using this entry strategy.
A central issue is to keep
key people
Use of middlemen#p#分頁標題#e#
294 JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 4/5 1999
Electronic strategies
Electronic marketing as an internationalizing strategy means that the service
firm extends its accessibility through the use of advanced electronic
technology. The Internet provides firms with a way of communicating its
offerings and putting them up for sale, and a way of collecting data about the
buying habits and patterns of its customers and using network partners to
arrange delivery and payment. The electronic bookstore Amazon.com is a
good example of a firm internationalizing its services using electronic
marketing. When launching this bookstore concept, it had to take into
account the interest in its services that would automatically develop outside
national borders. TV shops are examples of other ways of internationalizing
services using advanced technology, in this case satellite television. In
Europe, for example, music and fitness equipment are offered through
satellite television services.
When using electronic marketing, the firm is not bound to any particular
location. The service can be administered from anywhere on the globe and
still reach customers throughout a vast international market who, for
example, are connected to the Internet or exposed to satellite television
broadcasting. As a matter of fact, the firm cannot avoid creating interest in its
offerings outside its local or national market. Of course, language barriers
and electronic illiteracy may hinder the electronic offer from being used.
However, even a firm that chooses to internationalize using electronic
marketing cannot manage its service operations totally on its own. On
foreign markets it has, for example, to rely on at least postal and delivery
services. The possibility for the service firm to control such network partners
may be very limited.
Concluding remarks: will customers accept foreign services
Regardless of which entry mode the internationalizing service firm uses, the
local customers have to accept the services of a firm with a foreign
background. In addition, governments of countries abroad sometimes resist
foreign service firms. There is always a possibility of ethnocentric tendencies
(Sharma et al., 1995) among consumers on the markets abroad. Such
tendencies may become a problem for the internationalizing firm.
Ethnocentrism means that consumers prefer domestic goods or services,
because of nationalistic feelings. According to Sharma et al. (1995) openness
to foreign cultures may support the acceptance of goods and services with a
foreign origin whereas, for example, patriotism and conservatism may keep
consumers from buying. However, a recently reported study in the service
sector by de Ruyter et al. (1998) demonstrates that, in Europe at least, the
outlook for foreign services is promising. People who are more open to other#p#分頁標題#e#
cultures are less ethnocentric towards services. More importantly, younger
persons and more educated persons turned out to be significantly less
reluctant to accept foreign services than others. When growing older,
consumers with such tendencies can be expected to remain open to
international services. Also, as the educational level continues to increase,
the degree of ethnocentrism can be expected to decrease.
Governments that object to international service firms may severely
hinder foreign firms from entering the market with their services. In such
cases the internationalizing firm may have to develop relationships with
governmental institutions and treat them as their first customers
(Gummesson, 1998).
Language barriers
JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 4/5 1999 295
References
Agarwal, S. and Ramaswami, S.N. (1992), ``Choice of foreign market entry mode: impact of
ownership, location and internationalization factors'', Journal of International Business
Studies, Vol. 23 No. 1, pp. 1-27.
Bradley, F. (1995), ``The service firm in international marketing'', in Glynn, W.J. and Barnes,
J.G. (Eds), Understand Services Management, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY and
Chichester, pp. 420-48.
Burton, F.N. and Schlegelmilch, B.B. (1987), ``Profile analysis of non-exporters versus
exporters grouped by export involvement'', Management International Review, Vol. 27
No. 1, pp. 38-49.
Carman, J.M. and Langeard, E. (1980), ``Growth strategies of service firms'', Strategic
Management Journal, Vol. 1, January-March, pp. 7-22.
Cavusgil, S.T. and Nevin, J.R. (1981), ``Internal determinants of export marketing behavior: an
empirical investigation'', Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 114-19.
Clark, T., Rajaratnam, D. and Smith, T. (1996), ``Toward a theory of international services:
marketing intangibles in a world of nations'', Journal of International Marketing, Vol. 4
No. 2, pp. 9-28.
Dahringer, L.D. (1991), ``Marketing services internationally: barriers and management
strategies'', Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 5 No. 3, pp. 5-17.
Dunning, J.H. (1993), ``Multinational enterprises and the growth of services: some conceptual
and theoretical issues'', in Dunning, J.H. (Ed.), Transnational Corporations in Services
Routledge, London.
Ekeledo, I. and Sivakumar, K. (1998), ``Foreign market entry mode choice of service firms: a
contingency perspective'', Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 26 No. 4,
pp. 274-92.
Erramilli, M.K. (1990), ``Entry mode choice in service industries'', International Marketing
Review, Vol. 7 No. 5, pp. 50-62.
Erramilli, M.K. and Rao, C.P. (1990), ``Choice of foreign market entry modes by service firms:
role of market knowledge'', International Management Review, Vol. 30 No. 2, pp. 135-50.#p#分頁標題#e#
Erramilli, M.K. and Rao, C.P. (1993), ``Service firms' international entry-mode choice: a
modified transaction-cost analysis approach'', Journal of Marketing, Vol. 57, July,
pp. 19-38.
GroÈnroos, C. (1990a), ``Service management: a management focus for service competition'',
International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 6-14.
GroÈnroos, C. (1990b), ``Service management and marketing'', Managing the Moments of Truth
in Service Competition, Lexington Books, Lexington, MA.
Gummesson, E. (1998), RelationsmarknadsfoÈring. FraÊn 4 P till 30 R (Relationship Marketing.
From 4 Ps to 30 Rs), Liber-Hermods, Stockholm, in Swedish.
Hassan, S.S. and Kaynak, E. (1994), Globalization of Consumer Markets, International
Business Press, New York, NY.
Javalgi, R.G., Lawson, D., Gross, A.C. and White, D.S. (1998), ``Firm characteristics and
export propensity: a comparison of manufacturers and manufacturing-based service
providers'', International Business Review, Vol. 7 No. 5, pp. 521-34.
Majkgard, A. and Sharma, D.D. (1998), ``Client-following and market-seeking strategies in the
internationalization of service firms'', Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing, Vol. 4
No. 3, pp. 1-41.
Nigh, D., Kang, K.C. and Krishnan, S. (1986), ``The role of location-related factors in US
banking involvement abroad: an empirical examination'', Journal of International
Business Studies, Vol. 17, Fall, pp. 59-72.
Palmer, A. and Cole, C. (1995), Services Marketing: Principles and Practice, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
de Ruyter, K., van Birgelen, M. and Wetzels, M. (1998), ``Consumer ethnocentrism in
international services marketing'', International Business Review, Vol. 7, pp. 185-202.
Sharma, D.D. and Johanson, J. (1987), ``Technical consultancy in internationalisation'',
International Marketing Review, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 20-9.
296 JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 4/5 1999
Sharma, S., Shimp, T.A. and Shin, J. (1995), ``Consumer ethnocentrism: a test of antecedents
and moderators'', Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 23 No. 1,
pp. 26-37.
Terpstra, V. and Yu, C.-M. (1988), ``Determinants of foreign investments of US advertising
agencies'', Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 19, Spring, pp. 33-46.
Vandermerwe, S. and Chadwick, M. (1989), ``The internationalization of service'', The Service
Industry Journal, Vol. 9, January, pp. 79-93.
Weinstein, A.K. (1977), ``Foreign investments by service firms: the case of multinational
advertising agencies'', Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 8, Spring-Summer,
pp. 83-91.
Winstead, K.F. and Patterson, P.G. (1998), ``Internationalization of services: the service
http://www.mythingswp7.com/dissertation_writing/#p#分頁標題#e#exporting decision'', Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 294-311.
&
JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 4/5 1999 297