Study record: the Social Construction of Tourism Destinations-旅游目的地的社會建設

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03-25, 2014

Study record: the Social Construction of Tourism Destinations
旅游目的地的社會建設

Introduction
引言

Ordinary place is not the tourist place. However, ordinary place can turn into tourist place if the place has some particular meanings and values in attracting tourists. As a result, the social construction of tourist place has special history meanings and value to some extent, which can motivate the tourists having desire to see it themselves. One hand, the tourist place has great value or history meanings for the development of human beings and society. Other hand, the social construction will be designed according to the features and requirement of tourist place. Moreover, the tourist can have great impacts on the tourist place in lifestyle, consumption, and culture. Generally speaking, Social construction is influenced by many factors, such as social system, culture features, habits, and history. This research record tries to introduce and explain some theories and opinions through comparison and contrast among a series of literature works concerning the theme of social construction of tourism destination. Therefore, to identify and summarize the consensus and different opinions in this field, evaluate those contentions and indicate the development trend through the literature works identified. This research will firstly explain the social construction and the comparison between social construction and image research. Following this, it will provide place promotion through five aspects, such as definition and content of place promotion, the importance of place promotion, the principle of place promotion, promotion techniques, and evaluation of place promotion according to place consumption.

普通的地方不是旅游的地方。然而,普通的地方可以變成旅游的地方,如果這個地方有一些特殊含義和價值在吸引游客。因此,旅游地方的社會建設具有特殊的歷史意義和價值在某種程度上,它可以激發游客希望看到它。一方面,旅游的地方對人類和社會的發展很有價值或歷史意義。另一方面,社會建設將根據旅游的特性和要求被設計。此外,游客會對旅游的地方的生活方式、消費和文化有很大的影響,。一般來說,社會建設是受許多因素影響,如社會制度、文化特征,習慣,和歷史。本文章試圖記錄介紹和解釋一些理論和觀點通過一系列的文學作品之間的比較和對比有關旅游目的地的社會建構的主題。因此,識別并總結該領域的共識和不同意見,評估這些論點,表明通過文學作品識別的發展趨勢。本研究將首先解釋社會建設和社會建設和形象之間的對比研究。隨后,它將提供地方推廣通過五個方面,如定義和內容的地方推廣,地方推廣的重要性,促進地方的原則,提升技術和根據地方消費來評估一個地方。#p#分頁標題#e#

Main body

主體

Introduction of Social Construction

引入社會建設

As the literature meaning showed in the theme of this study record, it includes two key points to explore further. One concerns “social construction” and anther one is what does it like when social construction comes to “tourism destination”. In this introduction part, I present the knowledge’s and information concerning social construction that was got from a range of literatures and other media, which includes two main parts: the definition of social construction and comparison with image research, another mainstream research theory in tourism.

What is Social Construction?
本研究主題的記錄了文學意義,它進一步探索了兩個要點,。一個是“社會建設”和另一個是社會建設“旅游目的地什么樣子”。在引言部分,我將介紹關于社會建設的知識和信息,從各種文獻和其他媒體,其中包括兩個主要部分:社會建設和對比圖像研究,旅游的另一個主流的研究理論。

According to Ian Hacking (born 02/18/1936, a famous philosopher who specializes in Philosophy of Science), social construction can be defined by the term of “The social construction of X” or “Contracting X” as:

(0)According to the present state of affairs, X is taken for granted; X seems to be inevitable. (Hacking 1999)

(1)X need not have existed, or need not be at all as it is. X, or X as it is at present, is not determined by the nature of thins; it is not inevitable. (Hacking 1999)#p#分頁標題#e#

Besides, there are two other claims that usually can be used to define the phrase “social construction”, although they are not applied always.

(2)X is quite bad as it is.

(3)It would be much better off if X were done away with, or at least radically transformed. (Hacking 1999)

This is to say, in the opinion of author, if anything can be defined to be socially constructed, it depends on our society. It is not a creation of nature that does not depend on human beings. It exists because we build it. However, we do not have to build it, which is the same as Hacking said: it is not inevitable. (Hacking 1999). At least, it does not need to build in the present form or some specific form. If we are in a different form of society with different cultures, values and needs, we can certainly create something different or create it in a different way.

There are two levels of understanding. Firstly, the objects are totally created by human beings. We take the representative money as an instance. The meanings and functions of it are given by human beings by virtue of (i) collectively willing and intending (ii) to impose some particular function (purpose for which), (iii) by constitutive rules atop the "brute facts." (Searle 1995) Another level concerns something that exists naturally but defined with new social meanings by society. The most obvious phenomenon is gender. Human beings exist as two genders which are male and female before civilization. However, the different divisions of labors and different roles of society between male and female come from social consciousness, which is nurtured by society rather not nature.

Comparison with Image Research

What is Image Research

The social construction of tourism destination introduces psychological components and cultural context into tourism research. However, before that, the image study has been for a long time as the dominant tourism research theory. For example, Mayo1973 and Gartner & Hunt1987, and the way that images are communicated, for example, Britton1979; Cohen 1989; Bhattacharyya 1997.

The images study, according to Echtner and Ritchie (1991), use a wide range of characteristics and standards to measure the tourism destination such as the view, climate, facilities and etc.

Comparison between Social Construction and Image Research

(1)By exploring the more tangible physical components of place perception, the psychological components of affective response have been ignored by tourism image research (Walmsley & Young 1998). The focus of tourism image research has been understandably pragmatic and marketing based (Reilly 1990). As a result, this work has operated within the parameters of the place-construction process, and has not sought a broader understanding of mechanisms beyond the improvement of marketing strategies (Hall1997). That demonstrates the image study are goal-orientated (making places economically successful), rather than process-orientated (understanding the dynamics of place production and consumption). (Young 1999)#p#分頁標題#e#

(2)Another week point concerning image study research that it does not include the cultural context of the image creation and communication process for an improved understanding even when the research on image of tourism destination has explored the attributes of individual’ s cognitive processes and choice behavior (Ward & Gold 1994).

(3)Finally, the image research just focus on the attributes of the tourism destinations, but does not take the meaning of the places for people into account, neither how the meanings are socially constructed nor how the meaning are understood and consumed by people. As the result of deficiencies, as well as the opinion: landscapes become tourist places through the meanings ascribed to them by visitors and promotional agencies. (Squire 1994), the social construction of tourism destination is necessarily taken into consideration.

Place promotion (When social construction comes to tourism destination)

This part explains different researchers’ opinions on the place promotion (place production), which includes the definition and contents of the concept of place promotion (Place production); why this concept become more and more important; what is the specific strategies to promote the tourism destination and finally how to evaluate the work of place promotion for the social construction of tourism destination.

Definition and Contents:

Place promotion is including the re-assessment and re-representation of the place in order to establish and create a new image for localities, which can improve their competitive position in attracting and sustaining more resources. (Ashworth & Voogd 1988)

In this context, Kearns

& Philo have more specific interpretation: Places are subject to complex, contested processes where managers actively manipulate place meanings for the purposes of capital accumulation by converting them into symbolic products that can be traded or used to attract investment (Kearns & Philo 1993).

Importance of Place Promotion

The place promotion (place production) now plays an essential role in the tourism industry because of the more intense situation of market competition. However, the researchers have different arguments about the specific analysis about the importance of place promotion (place production) in the social construction of tourism destination.

Fainstein S. Susan:

It is known to all, place promotion has been increasingly significant as localities, which can try to manage the impact of globalization and political change (Fainstein 1990). In the past, relatively underdeveloped transport and communication technology limits people in some certainly limited areas for tour leisure. But the situation has been changed for the past half century, especially from the 80s last century. The globalization dramatically intensifies the competition all over the whole world by communicating and connecting different countries and regions. At the same time, the globalization also brings some precious opportunities for the development with more abundant resources and information. As one of the main types of industry, tourism is also forced to cooperate with the new challenges and chances. Besides, together with the international communication and globalization, the political strategies are changed in many countries actively or passively. More and more countries apply the open door policy to pursue the chances to develop further. Place promotion (place production), as the tool to accumulate capital for the domestic economy and build the international images for the country, attracts much more attention nowadays.#p#分頁標題#e#

Martin Young:

The tourist market is dominated by relatively unconstrained consumer choice for consumers to choose from. Besides, those choices constantly increase. (Young M, 1999) There are more and more tourism districts that are explored and introduced to the consumers. One side it is because of the open policies and more communication among countries and regions. The other side, the new technologies make it possible for a lot of places to be tourism destinations. In the former days, the tourism industry mainly depends on the natural scenery or historic heritage. So the tourist districts mainly locate at the natural scenic spots such as Niagara Falls and Great Barrier Reef in Australia or the places with long history, exotic culture and abundant heritages such as the Colosseum in Roma, the Royal Palace in Beijing and Pyramids in Egypt. But now other patterns like the theme travel are getting into the mainstream of tourism industry. The sport tourism, as a very typical new pattern of tourism, now is operated successful in a lot of places. Furthermore, with the development of modern management science, the service of tourism industry is more and more diversified. The diversification of service introduces the new “hotspot” of competition in tourism. The tourism does not just provide the travelers the beautiful views, good food and accommodation any more. It requires a whole package of services. Therefore, the place promotion has become one of the most important key points to pursue success in tourism industry.

Strategy Principle

We already learn about the importance of the place promotion (place production) in the social construction of tourism destination for better position in the industry competition. However, the place promotion (place production) is much more complicated than just the simple description about one place. It includes a series of work that creates a new image of the place as tourism destination and presents this new image to the tourism market for attraction. To make sure all the work go well, some principles are necessary to clarify at the beginning stage.

(1)Classify the promotion scale:

Normally, promotion take place on international, national, regional and local scales, and the organizations represent different spatial scales: the city, the region and even the whole country (Young & Kaczmarek 1999).

The place promotion scale classification is to clarify the target of the promotion blue print, and the specific work subsequently. The promotion scale depends on several of parameter. For instance, the promotion program budget and resource decides the scale of promotion, while the scale promotion can help to utilize the resource more effective. Another factor is that the promotion program pursue for a short term effect or a long term one. Furthermore, the scale of promotion can be justified according to the target change.#p#分頁標題#e#

(2)Classify the target consumers:

As a very famous marketing theory, the efficiency and effectiveness of customer segmentation has been proved both by the legendary multinational corporation and the small retailing business. The tailored market can utilize the limited resource and capital better by.

Focusing on the marketing that the customers are likely to spend money on it rather the market that may be unprofitable

Reducing the cost of promotion by a specific target and providing more space for potential profits.

Higher efficiency on utilizing the limited resource and capital, ahead of other competitors in the market in some specific part.

Higher level of production and service guarantee the loyal relationship with customers.

To classify the customers, the local tourism industry need to possess the awareness the motivation of tourists, which means what are the special local attraction for the tourists? As a result, they will know what kind of customers they can service for and explore and develop the tourism place with a clear target. For instance, the local government of Poland decided to build up a service centre and tourism destination in Lódz to attract the young tourists and foreign investment because the place is a university and educational centre, international centre of culture and art with International centre for exhibitions and fairs, Piotrkowska Street, shopping malls, Industrial heritage and Cultural heritage (Young & Kaczmarek 1999).

Promotion Techniques

The tourism industry used to be dominated by spectacle. No matter they are created by nature or come from civilization, the tourism sights are spectacular. However, this is not enough any more in current intensely competitive tourism market, no mention those place without those spectacular attraction. In this context, the place promotion becomes essential. The tourism destination can be socially constructed in some different manner. However, almost all of them have the same route to follow: create some tourism image (tourism meaning) and present them to the customers. As Ian Hacking said, social construction talk is often applied not only to worldly items – things, kinds and facts – but to our beliefsabout them. (Hacking 1999).

Myth, religion and legend

It is to promote the place to the customers by connecting the tourism destination with some myth, religion story and folk legend. Therefore, the place becomes unique for the tourists with those images (meanings). It is a very effective technique to socially construct the place as a tourism destination.

One of the most successful operations is the Santa Claus industry in Finland. The Santa Claus Village in Rovaniemi, Lapland, now is well known by the whole world for being the hometown of Santa Claus and the Christmas Post Office. It is a typical example of manipulation of the cultural myth to promote the tourism destination as a unique one. The commoditization of the cultural myth of Santa Claus through symbolic markers (Santa Claus Village and Workshop) allowed tourists to consume intangible place meanings, in this case the popular mythology of Christmas (Pretes1995).#p#分頁標題#e#

To connect the tourism destination with movie is similar with the former one that connects it with myth, religion and legend. Moreover, with the development of movie industry and entertainment industry, this kind of technique may have more obvious and more extensive effect on the place promotion. For instance, Salzburg (Austria) is famous as the scenery of a well known film “The Sound of Music”. Although the movie was shot back in 1965, until today the tour of “The Sound of Music” is still one of the most popular tour routes in Salzburg. The gloriette in the picture below, as one of the symbolic objects in the movie, is visited by numerous people for almost half of century.

Another interesting ongoing example is about the movie “Avatar”. “Avatar” has been one of the most popular movies since last Christmas season with the amazingly beautiful landscape and marvelous three-dimensional effect. It is said the original view of landscape in the movie is one scenic spot in Zhangjiajie, China. This unknown news came out when the movie is performing. And this one nameless mountain in Zhangjiajie now take the name of “Hallelujah the Mountain” in the movie as its official name. The connection with the movie “Avatar” already starts to attract people to visit this area.

(http://www.chinanews.com.cn/sh/news/2010/01-25/2089946.shtml)

Discussion: Touristic Authenticity

As mentioned before, the myth, religious story and legend can be the effective tools to do the place promotion. However, someone asks the questions like is Finland the home of Santa Claus or does Santa Claus really exist. It also happens to the movie. The re-name of the mountain to connect with the popular movie starts an intensive debate in china: is it real or it is just a sensationalization to promote the place. They all concern one subject: touristic authenticity.

In the so called postmodern society, everything can be commercialized to be consumed. So does the tourism, certainly. Someone argues that the reality gives way to representation; the real is no longer meaningful or necessary. Histories, time and space, as aspects of culture, become commodities. (Pretes 1995)

Consumption refers not to the process of satisfaction of needs--material goods are not the object of consumption but rather to a process of consuming or manipulating signs: "it is the idea of the relation that is consumed" (Baudrillard 1988).

The opposite argument comes from MacCannell (1989). He claims the tourists do seek the authentic: they are modern pilgrims seeking authenticity in other places and times.

In my opinion, I agree with the argument that nowadays most of tourists do not need, even do not want the authenticity. Just as Cohen Erik (1979) suggests that touristic motivations differ, that some seek varieties of authentic experience but many are simply seeking entertainment. The entertainment comes first and the realities underneath the tourist places are neglected and left far behind. However, the reality, in author’s argument, should take a very important part in the social construction of the tourism destination. I hope I can explore more in the future research.#p#分頁標題#e#

Anyway, since all those images about myth, religion and legend are not all authentic, do they work for the place promotion in a commercial perspective? This question has been answered by the numerous successful business operations in the real world. Besides, Eco Umberto (1986) states that authenticity is not historical but visual: if something looks real, it is real. Some tourists perceive reproductions of an object as being more real and therefore better than the original. If the tourist thinks the reproduced object, he has no idea to see the original in willing (Umberto 1986).

Tour brochure

Most tourists depend heavily on promotional literature in lieu of direct experience of place (Echtner & Ritchie 1991). The tour brochure, as one of the most traditional and most effective promotional literature, always plays a leading role in the tourism. A semiotic analysis of these tour brochures uncovered 15 themes commonly used to promote the area (Young 1997) as the table 1 below showed.

Source:Yong, M. (1997) the social construction of tourist places

Evaluation of Place Promotion by Place Consumption

Young M states the place promotion can be evaluated by comparing the place meanings constructed by the tourism industry with those actually consumed by tourists in one popular tourist place (Young 1999). The place is selected to promote as a tourism destination. How the tourism authorities create particular images (meanings) for the plan; how they present and communicate those images and how they manipulate it for capital accumulation and social reputation. All the work can be evaluated by place consumption.

Place consumption means the customers construct an image (meaning) for the place according to the information that they get, their experience and understanding and process them to evaluate the place as a tourism destination. But how the customers process their evaluation not only depends on the experience in the tourism destination, but also depends on their personal travel history, psychological motivations for travel, financial situation and most importantly, the previous impression they got from the place promotion before they come to the spot.

Source: Young M (1999) The Social Construction of Tourist Places.

As the picture showed, the overlap part is the consensus between the zone of producer surplus, (which represents the work of place production) and zone of consumer surplus (which represents the work that consumed by the tourists). The overlap, as the zone of convergence, is the part of place production that actually works for the commercial profit, social reputation and etc.#p#分頁標題#e#

The part of zone of consumer surplus that does not overlap means the expectations of the consumer are not satisfied. This part is the improvement space for the tourism industry. They should spend more resource and work to satisfy this part of requirements from consumers. The part of zone of producer surplus that does not overlap means that the works of place production are not identified by the consumer, which is, commercially useless. The resource for it can be transferred to the work that leads to commercial or social profit.

The part of un-overlap usually comes for some possible reasons.

(1)Not every single tourist does the previous research and information gather about the tourism place they visit. The place was a new object in the personal construct systems of many visitors (Kelly 1955). At the same time, the visitors have a system to memorize the experience and impression about their hometown or other places that they visited formerly. The comparison and contrast between those old memories and the new experience may lead to some conflicts and bring down their acceptance and satisfactions.

(2)If the tourists have some previous impression of the tourism place, it is usually to compare the previous impression with the real ongoing experience. When the tourists visit one place, the space and opportunity for them to know about the place deeply through direct interaction are very limited. So usually the tourists prefer those images and information that come to them directly. In the case of tourism, they are the tour brochures, the guided tour and the spot interpretation. Tourists may have a relatively nonnegotiable image or construction before they arrive in a destination, and may not alter this construction significantly even in the presence of conflicting evidence (Fenton, Young, & Johnson 1998). In other words, if the tourists find out something is different from what they think or the way they present, they are more possible to claim that they are disappointed rather than change their opinions and accept a new image (meaning).

(3)People travel to fulfill particular psychological needs (Pearce 1988). Consequently, visitors may interpret place meaning in the context of these need systems (Young M, 1999). This will influence their interpretations for the tourist place. And the tourist place promote the points that satisfy the specific psychological needs of the consumers can achieve more overlap between the place production and the place consumption. It also proves the importance and necessity of customer classification mentioned in the former part.

Conclusion
結論

In a word, continuous change and moving are the specific character of tourism as a spatial phenomenon. This change involves much about the physical and representational base of tourist destinations of the identity and cultural self-images for the local people. The local social construction is affected by the tourism industry according to the ideas of the local inhabitants and cultures. Although there are different views about the social construction of tourist destinations like the idea of image research, it is important for tourist destinations to sustain its attraction in culture or value. That is to say, it is necessary to implement place promotion strategy connecting with the local social constructions. Moreover, it is significant for tourist destinations to create specific tourism image or meaning in order to attract the tourists in the world. The place promotion can be assessed according to the consumption of local society.#p#分頁標題#e#

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Internet Reference:
網絡參考文獻：

http://eugenetoeurope.blogspot.com/, accessed on 15/02/2010

http://www.chinanews.com.cn/sh/news/2010/01-25/2089946.shtml, accessed on 15/02/2010

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