Literature Review寫作格式：Literature Review of Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom
Literature Review寫作格式-數據、信息、知識和智慧的文獻綜述。本文是一篇留學生Literature Review范文，主要內容是講述知識作為一種資源給經濟學家造成了巨大的誤解，因為與實物商品不同，知識是唯一一種在使用時增加回報的資源，而不是隨著時間的推移而減少或減少。知識的產生成本可能很高，但傳播成本很低。Massa，S.和Testa，S.認為，組織和全國經濟的成功決定因素越來越取決于其收集和利用知識的效率。根據Malhotra，Y.的觀點，知識已成為關鍵生產要素；盡管貨幣賬戶仍以傳統生產要素（包括建筑和機械）為主。知識流向最需要的地方的想法是關鍵點，它不應該只從上到下流動，而是在組織中以各種方式流動。Davidson，C.&Voss，P.，Lin，L.&Kwok，L.聲稱知識不再是力量的來源；知識共享在知識經濟中至關重要，但Kakabadse，N.等人認為知識本身就是力量。知識的創造和編纂不一定會導致績效改進或價值創造。只有在組織中始終分配知識并將其聯系到需要的地方時，才能產生價值。組織中只有聰明人是不夠的。下面請一起來看一下這篇Literature Review寫作范文的全部內容。
Why Knowledge management is so important? 為什么知識管理如此重要？
Knowledge as a resource causes huge misunderstanding for economists, because unlike the physical commodities, it is the only resource which increased returns as it is used rather than reduced or diminished over time (Clarke, T. 2001). Knowledge may be costly to generate but there is modest cost to diffusion. Massa, S. & Testa, S. (2008) believed that the determinants of success of organizations, and nationwide economies as a total, is ever more dependent upon their efficiency in assembling and utilizing knowledge. Accordingly to Malhotra, Y. (2000) knowledge has turn into a key production factor; though the monetary accounts are still leading by conventional factors of production, including buildings and machinery. The idea of knowledge flowing to where it is most needed is the critical point and it should not flow only from the top down, but flow in all ways in an organization, (Davenport, T. & Prusak, L. 2000). Davidson, C. & Voss, P. (2004), Lin, L. & Kwok, L. (2006) claimed that knowledge is no longer a source of power; it is knowledge sharing that counts in the knowledge economy but author like Kakabadse, N. et al., (2003), viewed knowledge itself is power. Creation and codification of knowledge do not necessarily lead to performance improvement or value creation. Value is generated only when knowledge is allocated all the way through in an organization and linked where it is needed (Chena, C & Huang, J. 2007). It is not sufficient to have smart people in the organization. Instead, the key is to create systems that tap into the knowledge, experiences, and creativity of your staff, your customers, your suppliers, and even your competitors. Knowledge strategy needs to be concerned with the quality of information, not the quantity; and with the timeliness of information delivery, not its speed. Smart systems are excellent but smart people are superior. Despres, C. & Chauvel, D. (1999) identified that knowledge management occurs on three ends:
相反，關鍵是創建能夠利用員工、客戶、供應商甚至競爭對手的知識、經驗和創造力的系統。知識戰略需要關注信息的質量，而不是數量；信息傳遞的及時性，而不是速度。智能系統很優秀，但聰明人更優秀。Despres，C.和Chauvel，D.指出，知識管理發生在三個方面：
the individual,個人
the team and 團隊
the organizational. 以及組織
Framework for knowledge approaches 知識方法框架
Knowledge management is linked to diverse business fields and it has always been entrenched in the individual behavior. It is not all about creating an index or register that detains the whole thing that anyone ever knew. Collison, C. & Parcell, G. (2004) suggested that it is about maintaining track of those who know the procedure, techniques and fostering the culture and technology that will get them talking. It is challenging to understand the nature of knowledge and the way it is managed. Also the management approaches towards knowledge management is varied. Knowledge can be created from re-describing and re-labeling the past knowledge, it also created from connecting people (the relationships) and connecting technologies (networks). This might be flexible social or stiff technical networks. These discussions vibrate with the managerial paradox of developing organizational performance via rigid or free control systems and this was interpreted in the following model adopted from Armistead, C. & Meakins, M. (2002) for describing four approaches to knowledge management stand on whether it is in an organizational or an individual context, and whether knowledge management is imposed or empowered by managerial approaches.
知識管理與不同的業務領域聯系在一起，它始終植根于個人行為中。這并不是創建一個索引或寄存器來保存任何人都知道的全部內容。Collison，C.和Parcell，G.建議，這是關于保持對那些了解程序、技術的人的跟蹤，并培養讓他們說話的文化和技術。理解知識的本質及其管理方式是一項挑戰。知識管理的管理方法也多種多樣。知識可以通過重新描述和標記過去的知識來創造，也可以通過連接人（關系）和連接技術（網絡）來創造。這可能是靈活的社交網絡或僵硬的技術網絡。這些討論與通過剛性或自由控制系統發展組織績效的管理悖論相沖突，Armistead，C.&Meakins，M.采用的以下模型對此進行了解釋，以及知識管理是由管理方法強加還是授權的。
Armistead, C. & Meakins, M. (2002)
Imposition is linked with bureaucracy, structured and controlled systems and attempts to codify all aspects of knowledge. It might expect such perceptions to be more inclined to explicit rather than tacit knowledge. In contrast, Empowerment recognized the potential in the social and individual for knowledge creation and sharing, in which the tacit as much as the explicit aspect of knowledge is engaged. The authors considered that managers are likely to be concerned with knowledge at an individual and organization level and with particular approaches to managing knowledge. Consequently they proposed a managerial framework which uses the constructs of imposed and empowered as one axis and the individual and the organization as the other.
強加與官僚主義、結構化和受控的系統以及試圖編纂知識的所有方面相聯系。它可能期望這種認知更傾向于顯性知識而非隱性知識。相比之下，賦權意識到了社會和個人創造和分享知識的潛力，其中既有隱性知識，也有顯性知識。作者認為，管理者可能關注個人和組織層面的知識，以及管理知識的特定方法。因此，他們提出了一個管理框架，該框架將強制和授權的結構作為一個軸心，將個人和組織作為另一個軸心。
– Prescribed recommends a official approach to knowledge and its management at an organizational level. It might see technology set up widely to detain, store up and guard knowledge.
–規定了在組織層面上對知識及其管理的官方方法。它可能會看到技術被廣泛建立，以扣留、儲存和保護知識。
– Compliance means individual engage in knowledge activities through contract and regulation. Resources are distributed via prescribed performance management processes.
–合規性是指個人通過合同和法規參與知識活動。通過規定的績效管理流程分配資源。
– Adaptive engages with the informal within the social fabric of the organization in the logic of communities of practice and the self-management of teams.
–自適應在實踐社區和團隊自我管理的邏輯中，與組織社會結構中的非正式人員互動。
– Self-determination supports individuals to get responsibility for their part to learning in the knowledge creation and sharing processes.
–自我決定支持個人在知識創造和分享過程中承擔學習責任。
From the above management paradox of how the knowledge is manage at an organizational and individual context. There is another well known model, called SECI or knowledge spiral model. The model did not only described that how the knowledge is managed but it also explained the overall knowledge creation process.
從上述管理悖論中可以看出，知識是如何在組織和個人環境中管理的。還有另一個眾所周知的模型，稱為SECI或知識螺旋模型。該模型不僅描述了如何管理知識，還解釋了整個知識創建過程。
SECI Model SECI模型
In 1995, (Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. 1995) introduced their SECI model, which stands for Socialization, Externalization, Combination and Internalization. The purpose of this model is to offer an understanding of how organizations create knowledge and formalize organization processes which are mostly tacit in nature. It further provides an understanding of knowledge sharing, its management and application at an organizational level. According to Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. (1995) knowledge is formed from the interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge. These four knowledge conversion processes interconnected by moving from tacit to explicit knowledge as it moves from socialization to internalization then return to socialization to shape a spiral model of knowledge creation. Hiscock, J. (2004) stated that the first generation earlier to 1995, completely dependent on technologies in their daily task often known technocratic, but this is the second generation of knowledge management, where knowledge exchange is illustrated as a spiral – a thing to be managed and something which can be made explicit. As the purpose of this research it is to look at the barriers to knowledge management thus the only focal point from this model is to observe overall knowledge creation process. Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. (1995) discussed that how tacit and explicit knowledge interrelate to successfully create knowledge in an organization via four conversion processes:
1995年，引入了SECI模型，即社會化、外部化、組合化和內部化。該模型的目的是了解組織如何創建知識，并將組織過程形式化，這些過程在本質上大多是默認的。它還提供了對知識共享、知識管理和組織層面應用的理解。根據Nonaka，I.和Takeuchi，H.的觀點，知識是由隱性知識和顯性知識之間的相互作用形成的。這四個知識轉換過程相互關聯，從隱性知識到顯性知識，從社會化到內部化，然后再回到社會化，形成知識創造的螺旋模型。Hiscock，J.指出，早在1995年，第一代人在日常工作中完全依賴技術，通常被稱為技術官僚，但這是第二代知識管理，其中知識交流被描述為螺旋形——一種需要管理的東西，一種可以明確表達的東西。由于本研究的目的是考察知識管理的障礙，因此該模型的唯一焦點是觀察整個知識創造過程。Nonaka，I.和Takeuchi，H.討論了隱性和顯性知識如何通過四個轉換過程相互關聯，從而在組織中成功創建知識：
Socialization – tacit to tacit 社會化–隱性知識轉換為隱性知識
Socialization is the process through which tacit knowledge is passed to others; it is directly related to the group processes and organizational culture. Tacit knowledge is often attained through sharing experiences, observations and the processes that arises without formal discussions and using language for instance face to face interaction. Interviewing and focus groups techniques are also creating tacit knowledge amongst people.
社會化是隱性知識傳遞給他人的過程；它與團隊流程和組織文化直接相關。隱性知識通常是通過分享經驗、觀察和在沒有正式討論的情況下產生的過程以及使用語言（例如面對面互動）獲得的。訪談和焦點小組技術也在人們中創造了隱性知識。
Externalization – tacit to explicit 外部化–隱性知識轉換為顯性知識
Externalization of tacit knowledge is the conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit. As tacit knowledge is embedded in the people’s mind and that is externalize or express by sharing of paradigms, metaphors and concepts through formal discussions. Nonaka, I & Takeuchi, H. (1995) declared that we have conceptualized an image; we generally tend to express it in language. Externalization is developing notions which facilitate tacit knowledge to communicate. Redesign of existing information can escort to new knowledge in the shape of written statements. Wakefield, R. (2006) argued that when knowledge is externalized and turn into explicit it is in fact converted back into information or data. Both have values, but this cannot be out until the data and information is internalized again to form knowledge that is used for some productive purposes.
隱性知識的外部化是隱性知識向顯性知識的轉化。因為隱性知識嵌入人們的頭腦中，并通過正式討論分享范式、隱喻和概念而被外化或表達。Nonaka，I&Takeuchi，H.宣稱我們已經將圖像概念化；我們通常傾向于用語言表達。外部化正在發展促進隱性知識交流的概念。對現有信息的重新設計可以以書面陳述的形式為新知識保駕護航。Wakefield，R.認為，當知識被外化并轉化為顯性時，它實際上又被轉化為信息或數據。兩者都有價值，但在數據和信息再次內化形成用于某些生產目的的知識之前，這是不可能的。
Combination – explicit to explicit 組合–顯性知識到顯性知識
Combination is a process of systemizing concept into a knowledge system, at this level explicit knowledge merged with written reports and other strategic documents through formal discussions (i.e. meetings, documents etc.). This process includes gathering significant knowledge then sorting, editing and distributing it, which allows knowledge sharing within organization. Formal education and training are also comprise in this type of knowledge conversion.
組合是將概念系統化為知識系統的過程，在這一層次上，通過正式討論（即會議、文件等），將明確的知識與書面報告和其他戰略文件相結合。這一過程包括收集重要知識，然后對其進行分類、編輯和分發，從而實現組織內的知識共享。正規教育和培訓也包括在這類知識轉換中。
Internalization explicit to tacit 顯性到隱性內化
Internalization is a mechanism of altering explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge. It is achieved through individual expression and learning by doing. Once the explicit knowledge shared with individuals to internalize what they have experienced and then their understanding becomes tacit knowledge in the form of shared intellectual models or technological know-how which further become a valuable asset for the organization. For example: customer complaint are recorded and then read by other team members.
內化是一種將顯性知識轉化為隱性知識的機制。它是通過個人表達和在實踐中學習來實現的。一旦與個人分享明確的知識以內化他們所經歷的一切，他們的理解就會以共享的智力模型或技術訣竅的形式成為隱性知識，進而成為組織的寶貴資產。例如：記錄客戶投訴，然后由其他團隊成員閱讀。
key components and its related barriers to Knowledge 關鍵組成部分及其相關知識壁壘
Management 經營管理
DuPlessis, M. (2008) point out that knowledge management is a holistic solution integrating mixture of perspectives: people, process, technology and culture perspectives and every single one should hold equal influence. According to Gillingham, H. & Roberts, B. (2006), people, process and technology (soft and hard aspects) reveals the most essential features engaged in capturing, disseminating and sharing knowledge. These elements require to be balanced to guarantee that the complete benefits of knowledge sharing are exploited. Of course, people, process, and technology (PPT) are intertwined and no organizations get very far benefits without having a basic competency in all. But the tougher challenge in knowledge management is how to built ‘PPT’ into an organization. Collison, C. & Parcell, G. (2004) suggested that involving people who knows, and the behaviors to ask, listen and share, some processes to make things easier for sharing, validation, distillation, and a familiar, reliable technology infrastructure to facilitate sharing. Knowledge management is all concerning the integration of people, process, technology but strategy and structure too (Armistead, C. & Meakins, M. 2002). According to Quinn, F. (2008) the development of knowledge managements exposes many issues that firms claim to have solved completely. The issues for example related to business benefits, people and culture, technology and process. These issues reflect all the main areas of concern in a knowledge environment and can be produce the barriers or road block to achieving the corporate success that most of would wish to inhabit.
DuPlessis，M.指出，知識管理是一個綜合性解決方案，融合了多種視角：人、過程、技術和文化視角，每一種視角都應具有同等的影響力。根據Gillingham，H.&Roberts，B.的說法，人、過程和技術（軟方面和硬方面）揭示了獲取、傳播和共享知識的最基本特征。需要平衡這些要素，以確保充分利用知識共享的好處。當然，人員、流程和技術是相互交織的，沒有一個組織在不具備基本能力的情況下就能獲得很大的利益。但是，知識管理中更嚴峻的挑戰是如何將“PPT”構建成一個組織。Collison，C.&Parcell，G.建議，讓了解情況的人以及詢問、傾聽和分享的行為參與進來，一些流程可以讓分享、驗證、提煉變得更容易，并且有一個熟悉、可靠的技術基礎設施來促進分享。知識管理不僅涉及人員、流程、技術的整合，還涉及戰略和結構的整合。根據Quinn，F.的觀點，知識管理的發展暴露了許多公司聲稱已經完全解決的問題。例如，這些問題涉及商業利益、人員和文化、技術和流程。這些問題反映了知識環境中的所有主要關注領域，并可能成為實現大多數人希望的企業成功的障礙或障礙。
People 人員
The biggest misunderstanding that the Information Technology (IT) leaders composed is that the knowledge management is all about technology. Gillingham, H. & Robert, B. (2006) confirmed that people are the most central and complex element in knowledge management. It is a people who create and share knowledge, Since, (tacit) knowledge is set aside in the individuals the most essential thing for knowledge management is the system to allow the conceal knowledge within an individual be spread to others in order for them to share, exploit, and then alter it into (explicit) knowledge within an organization (Yeh, Y. et al., 2006). Knowledge management helps us do what we do better and it’s connect information and people, and people and people. Call, D. (2005) suggested that people are not being able to gain knowledge in a minutes and hours but they learn over days or weeks and one of challenge is to detained knowledge from what people said and did as part of their everyday job and to build it reachable to rest in an organization. According to Gundry, J. & Metes, G. (1996) people behaviors is often manipulated by their beliefs, values, attitudes, and the organization culture. Influencing what people believe should direct to changes in values, attitudes and behavior in which knowledge is shared behavior. Gillingham H. & Robert, B. (2006) stated that it is complicated to get people to do things in a different way because people can simply fall back on defensive routines. A state of willingness require from individuals to get people to modify the way that they do things, it is central to manage those who are willing to create and share their knowledge (Yeh, Y. et al., 2006). According to the Abell, A. & and Oxbrow, N. (2001) people ask numbers of question in organization towards knowledge management for example: What is in knowledge for me? How does it make my job easier? What appreciation will I get for sharing my knowledge? Etc. It is important to identify what knowledge people need and what knowledge people already possess and how to link people and knowledge process.
信息技術（IT）領導者所構成的最大誤解是知識管理都是關于技術的。Gillingham，H.&Robert，B.證實，人是知識管理中最核心和最復雜的要素。這是一個創造和分享知識的人，因為（隱性的）知識被保留在個人身上，知識管理最重要的是允許個人內部隱藏的知識傳播給其他人，以便他們分享、利用，然后在組織內部將其轉化為（顯性的）知識的系統。知識管理幫助我們做得更好，它將信息與人、人與人聯系起來。Call，D.認為，人們不可能在幾分鐘和幾小時內獲得知識，但他們會在幾天或幾周內學習，其中一個挑戰是，將人們的言行作為日常工作的一部分，并將其建立在組織中休息的可及性上。根據Gundry，J.&Metes，G.的說法，人們的行為往往受到他們的信仰、價值觀、態度和組織文化的影響。影響人們的信仰應該導致價值觀、態度和行為的改變，在這些改變中，知識是共享的行為。Gillingham H.&Robert，B.指出，讓人們以不同的方式做事是很復雜的，因為人們可以簡單地回到防御的常規中。意愿狀態要求個人改變他們做事的方式，管理那些愿意創造和分享知識的人至關重要。根據Abell，A.和Oxbrow，N.的說法，人們在組織中對知識管理提出了許多問題，例如：知識對我來說是什么？它如何使我的工作更容易？分享我的知識會得到什么樣的贊賞？識別人們需要什么知識，人們已經擁有什么知識，以及如何將人們和知識過程聯系起來，這一點很重要。
In any system where information or knowledge is accessible, there must be adequate security to ensure that only appropriate people are able to see what knowledge is held and by whom, in that case ‘confidentiality’ is the barrier to crafting a knowledge sharing culture in the organization (DuPlessis, M. 2008). But from the organizational point of view, one can comprehend that it is in national interest that the particular knowledge stays confidential. In other word the right information and knowledge should distributed to the right people at the right time and right place. For example in defense sectors and utilities provider such as countries like South Africa where they have one and only major energy provider, their key knowledge and information would be exceptionally secret hence it should be strongly managed (Sutton, S. & Leech, S. 2002).
在任何可獲取信息或知識的系統中，必須有足夠的安全性，以確保只有適當的人員才能看到所掌握的知識以及由誰掌握的知識，在這種情況下，“保密”是在組織中形成知識共享文化的障礙。但從組織的角度來看，人們可以理解，特定知識保密符合國家利益。換句話說，正確的信息和知識應該在正確的時間和地點分發給正確的人。例如，在國防部門和公用事業提供商，如南非等國家，他們只有一家主要能源提供商，他們的關鍵知識和信息將非常保密，因此應嚴格管理。
‘Employee often does not know what is the concept of knowledge management’ – their perception about knowledge as resources in not clear as capital assets resources. In the view of McCann, J. & Buckner, M. (2004) people do not include knowledge into their work process to make final products and services and even do not feel responsible for sharing their own knowledge with colleagues. Kols, A. (2004) submitted that people do not even realize that they have knowledge worth sharing. Employees viewed knowledge management as an additional job, processes and formal channel of communications which is not incorporated into their daily working environment (DuPlessis, M. 2008). Another potential factor; ’employed turnover’, where experienced employees transferred, promoted, retired, or fired from the organization, both their tacit and explicit knowledge may be lost unless the organization makes a concerted effort to assure that it is shared.
“員工通常不知道什么是知識管理的概念”——他們對知識作為資源的看法并不清楚，不清楚是資本資產資源。在McCann，J.&Buckner，M.的觀點中，人們沒有將知識納入他們的工作流程中，以制作最終產品和服務，甚至沒有責任與同事分享自己的知識。Kols，A.認為，人們甚至沒有意識到自己擁有值得分享的知識。員工將知識管理視為一項額外的工作、過程和正式的溝通渠道，而這些工作、流程和溝通渠道并未納入他們的日常工作環境。另一個潛在因素；'員工離職”，即經驗豐富的員工從組織中調離、晉升、退休或被解雇，除非組織做出一致努力確保共享，否則他們的隱性和顯性知識可能會丟失。
Knowledge management setup and implementations requires sufficient ‘time’ which is often claimed constraint. Time can be a difficult area or barrier, where employees are considered on the hourly basis, for example; accountants, lawyers, solicitors and engineers. For them, time is wealth and it is hard to modify the view that knowledge management be able to make them work smarter and quicker, even if they do expend some time on it upfront (DuPlessis, M. 2008). When the organization was steady and developing smoothly, it would be feasible for people to take extra time and effort to get involved in such knowledge management activities. Once the circumstances changed, these practices would be easily gone down because they were peripheral to business operations (Lin, L. & Kwok, L. 2006).
知識管理的設置和實施需要足夠的“時間”，這通常被稱為限制。時間可能是一個困難的領域或障礙，例如，員工按小時計算；會計師、律師、律師和工程師。對他們來說，時間就是財富，很難改變知識管理能夠讓他們更聰明、更快地工作的觀點，即使他們確實在這方面花費了一些時間。當組織穩定且發展順利時，人們可以花費額外的時間和精力來參與此類知識管理活動。一旦情況發生變化，這些做法將很容易被淘汰，因為它們與商業運營無關。
Process 流程
Armistead, C. & Meakins, M. (2002) declared that knowledge management is a process rather than an asset, and hence to facilitate maximize its value an organization must have to form an environment that facilitates the flow of knowledge. The argument between technology and people is about the ways of managing knowledge processes. Barnes, P. (2007), Probst et al., (2000) categorizes knowledge management in six core processes; knowledge identification, knowledge acquisition, knowledge expansion, knowledge sharing or distribution, knowledge exploitation and knowledge preservation. In order to share knowledge, one requires tools or processes: Expert locater systems, communities of practice (formal and informal), distance learning information-sharing tools, emergent expertise, storytelling, knowledge repositories, conferences/workshops/ seminars, e-learning applications and virtual communities are some of the methods organizations can use to disseminate knowledge. Abell, A. & Oxbrow, N. (2001) believed that people make process work, often through informal steps- how can these be formalized and how to build communities around business processes. Process must learn – how to achieve the commitment of people to the learning process and how to integrate knowledge creation and utilization into business process. Processes need technology support- how to integrate business benefits and technology capability, it also require formal and informal communication between employees.
Armistead，C.&Meakins，M.宣稱，知識管理是一個過程，而不是一種資產，因此為了實現其價值的最大化，組織必須形成一個促進知識流動的環境。技術和人之間的爭論是關于管理知識過程的方式。Barnes，P.，Probst等人，將知識管理分為六個核心過程；知識識別、知識獲取、知識擴展、知識共享或分配、知識開發和知識保存。為了分享知識，需要工具或流程：專家定位器系統、實踐社區（正式和非正式）、遠程學習信息共享工具、突發專業知識、講故事、知識庫、會議/研討會/研討會、電子學習應用程序和虛擬社區是組織傳播知識的一些方法。Abell，A.和Oxbrow，N.認為，人們通常通過非正式步驟來實現流程工作——這些步驟如何正式化，以及如何圍繞業務流程建立社區。流程必須學習——如何實現人們對學習流程的承諾，以及如何將知識創造和利用融入業務流程。流程需要技術支持——如何整合業務效益和技術能力，還需要員工之間的正式和非正式溝通。
‘Lack of communication’, non-standardized processes and information systems and not knowing where to get knowledge. Gillingham, H. & Roberts, B. (2006) stated that location and distance (geographical, legal, cultural and lingual) to access of vast organization knowledge can be a bottleneck Informal communication outlook as just chitchat or chatty activity, managers do not see the advantage of (tacit) knowledge process or transfer from one employee to another hence often employees are restricted to engage in discussing projects or ideas at meeting places such as near to water coolers or coffee machines (Webb, S. 1998).
“缺乏溝通”，流程和信息系統不規范，不知道從哪里獲取知識。Gillingham，H.&Roberts，B.指出，獲取大量組織知識的位置和距離（地理、法律、文化和語言）可能是一個瓶頸非正式溝通觀，就像閑聊或閑聊活動一樣，管理者看不到（隱性的）知識過程或從一名員工轉移到另一名員工的優勢，因此，員工通常被限制在會議場所（如靠近水冷卻器或咖啡機）討論項目或想法。
However ‘organization confusion’ over the focus of the initiative often creates barriers to knowledge management: information or knowledge management; knowledge management or learning organization; which should lead human resources (HR) or information technology (IT). However there is danger in attempting to identify and collect everything available. According to Giannetto, K. & Wheeler, A. (2000) if too much detail is gathered, it is impossible to distinguish what might be of value to employees and it will become a huge unmanageable, bureaucratic nightmare Organizations ‘focus on collection not connection’ and attempt to capture all organization knowledge in repositories, often creating electronic bucket in place of physical filing cabinets also misunderstand the difference between tacit and explicit knowledge and treat it in the same way.
然而，對倡議重點的“組織混亂”往往會給知識管理帶來障礙：信息或知識管理；知識管理或學習組織；其應領導人力資源或信息技術。然而，試圖識別和收集所有可用的信息是有危險的。根據Giannetto，K.&Wheeler，A.的說法，如果收集了太多的細節，就無法區分哪些可能對員工有價值，這將成為一個巨大的難以管理的官僚噩夢，通常用電子桶代替物理文件柜也會誤解隱性知識和顯性知識之間的區別，并以同樣的方式對待它們。
Technology 技術
The role of technology is significant; it is ultimately a facilitator of human knowledge in the organization. Technology or IS does not hold tacit knowledge, as it is held in the human brain (Rock, S. 1998), although it is transfer medium of tacit into explicit knowledge to some extend because tacit knowledge alters with each new experience and technology should be updated frequently. Armistead, C. & Meakins, M. (2002) affirmed that information technology can enable speedy search, access and retrieval of information, and can support collaboration and communication between organizational members. In real meaning, it can undoubtedly play a variety of roles to support an organization’s knowledge management processes. Technologies and knowledge management are strongly tied, because both assist the circulation of structured knowledge vertically and horizontally in the organization. (Yeh, Y. et al., 2006) argued that technology plays following roles in knowledge management:
技術的作用是重要的；它最終是組織中人類知識的促進者。技術或信息系統不包含隱性知識，因為它存在于人腦中，盡管它在某種程度上是隱性知識向顯性知識的轉移媒介，因為隱性知識會隨著每一次新的體驗而改變，技術也應經常更新。Armistead，C.&Meakins，M.肯定了信息技術可以實現信息的快速搜索、訪問和檢索，并可以支持組織成員之間的協作和通信。在實際意義上，它無疑可以扮演多種角色來支持組織的知識管理過程。技術和知識管理緊密相連，因為兩者都有助于結構化知識在組織中的縱向和橫向傳播。認為，技術在知識管理中扮演著以下角色：
– acquiring knowledge;獲取知識
– classify, store, index, and tie knowledge related digital items;對與知識相關的數字項目進行分類、存儲、索引和關聯
– search and identify related content; and 搜索和識別相關內容，以及
– flexibly communicate the content based on the different utilization backgrounds.根據不同的使用背景靈活地交流內容。
Knowledge management classifications are broadly defined technologies which improve and enable knowledge generation, codification and transfer. Peoples experiences and interpretations that add value, transforms into knowledge by using technologies. Knowledge management (technology) tools for instance: e-mail, document systems, groupware, the internet, intranet and video conferencing are all knowledge collaboration tools which can be use for gathering, organizing and sharing knowledge in the organizations (Gillingham, H. & Roberts, B. 2006).
知識管理分類是廣泛定義的技術，可改進和促進知識生成、編纂和轉讓。人們的經驗和解釋增加了價值，通過使用技術轉化為知識。知識管理（技術）工具，例如：電子郵件、文檔系統、群件、互聯網、內聯網和視頻會議都是知識協作工具，可用于組織中收集、組織和共享知識。
Not everyone is ‘computer literate’ and that sort of illiteracy become a cause which brake knowledge management processes also people finds that working with complex systems is not easy (DuPlessis, M. 2006). Sometimes it is more challenging for the organization to get people trained to using the KM tools (technologies) to facilitate knowledge sharing and retention.
并非所有人都“懂計算機”，這種文盲成為阻礙知識管理進程的原因。人們還發現，使用復雜系統并不容易。有時，組織更難讓員工接受使用知識管理工具（技術）的培訓，以促進知識共享和保留。
Holland, J. & Johanson, U. 2003) recognized that organization consideration towards ‘technological costs’ sometimes restrain in respect of installing knowledge management software’s and hardware’s. Perhaps both are very expensive in terms of getting licenses for every member in a large organization. Since knowledge is an intangible asset, it is more complex for organization to calculate return on investment in hard form (cash), therefore step back from any initiative; however Collison, C & Parcell, G. (2001) believed that knowledge benefits can be defined in qualitative and quantitative measures. Another barriers occur when technology is not ‘up to date’ with the business processes as well as with the improvements in the technological world then knowledge and information might become rapidly old-fashioned and if maintenance and back-ups is not done regularly, knowledge can be vanished in a catastrophe situation, which is not only costly but also irretrievable.
Holland，J.&Johanson認識到，組織對“技術成本”的考慮有時會限制知識管理軟件和硬件的安裝。在一個大型組織中，要為每個成員獲得許可證，這兩種方式可能都非常昂貴。由于知識是一種無形資產，所以組織計算硬形式（現金）的投資回報率更為復雜，因此要放棄任何主動行動；然而，Collison，C&Parcell，G.認為，知識收益可以用定性和定量的方法來定義。當技術與業務流程以及技術世界的進步不同步時，就會出現另一個障礙，那么知識和信息可能會迅速過時，如果不定期進行維護和備份，知識可能會在災難情況下消失，這不僅代價高昂，而且無法挽回。
The advance type of communications for example; ‘intranet’ if organizations only rely on this then it will be a huge barrier to the exchange of tacit knowledge. Davenport, T & Prusak, L. (2000) suggest that knowledge sharing events happen when people connect via communities of practice and in person meetings.
例如，先進的通信類型如果組織僅僅依靠內部網，那么它將成為交流隱性知識的巨大障礙。Davenport，T&Prusak，L.認為，當人們通過實踐社區和面對面會議進行聯系時，知識共享活動就會發生。
Culture 文化
Chen, C. & Huang, J. (2007) described organizational culture as shared value, beliefs, and work atmospheres that could have considerable impacts on the behaviors of employees. According to Yeh, Y. et al., (2006) culture is the combination of value, core belief, behavior model, and emblem. Culture is normally reflected in the form of organization’s corporate structure, management and leadership style, learning from experience, norms, and practices, trust, rewards and recognition, networks and community of practices etc (DeLong, DW. & Fahey, L. 2004, Al-Hawamdeh, S. 2003). Culture can play a role for organizational learning and every organization’s culture is an independent entity different than any other organization. Alavi, M. & Leidner, D. (2001) suggested that it is significant to comprehend that knowledge management is not as much of technical problem, but it is more of cultural problem. Culture is not only intangible and illusive, but it can also be observed at multiple levels in an organization.
Chen，C.和Huang，J.將組織文化描述為共同的價值觀、信念和工作氛圍，可能會對員工的行為產生重大影響。根據Yeh，Y.等人的觀點，文化是價值觀、核心信仰、行為模式和象征的組合。文化通常體現在組織的公司結構、管理和領導風格、從經驗、規范和實踐中學習、信任、獎勵和認可、網絡和實踐社區等方面。文化可以在組織學習中發揮作用，每個組織的文化都是不同于其他組織的獨立實體。Alavi，M.&Leidner，D.認為，理解知識管理不是技術問題，而是文化問題是非常重要的。文化不僅是無形的和虛幻的，而且在一個組織的多個層面上也可以觀察到。
‘Trust and honesty’ are elements of culture – sometime not clearly visible, Davenport, T. & Prusak, L. (2000) confirmed that without these elements knowledge management would not function properly between individuals. Employees ask many questions themselves for instance; if I share knowledge will others misuse it, can I belief the knowledge that others created (Abell, A. & Oxbrow, N. 2001).
“信任和誠實”是文化的要素——有時并不明顯，Davenport，T.&Prusak，L.證實，如果沒有這些要素，知識管理將無法在個人之間正常運作。例如，員工自己會問很多問題；如果我分享知識，別人會濫用它嗎？我能相信別人創造的知識嗎。
Another familiar barrier point out by Kols, A. (2004) ‘knowledge as a source of power or authority’ and therefore hoarding it, similarly organizations are naturally unwilling to share their skills and know-how with rivals. Employees possibly will not willing to share their knowledge because they might lose control/power, they spotlight on continued existence in the organization rather than willingness to share knowledge (Clegg, S. & Palmer, G. 1996). The following Chinese sayings depicting this philosophy with influences from such widespread beliefs, knowledge sharing becomes more complex.
Kols，A.指出的另一個熟悉的障礙是“知識是權力或權威的來源”，因此，組織自然不愿意與競爭對手分享他們的技能和訣竅。員工可能不愿意分享他們的知識，因為他們可能會失去控制/權力，他們關注的是組織中的持續存在，而不是分享知識的意愿。以下中國諺語描述了這一哲學，并受到廣泛信仰的影響，知識共享變得更加復雜。
“A good mastery of a single skill ensures a lifetime employment” – (Lin, L. & Kwok, L. 2006).“熟練掌握一項技能可確保終身就業”
Internal divisions are general obstacle. Each department, field office, service delivery site, or project team tends to focus on its own problems, have limited contact with outsiders, and unaware of what other subdivisions are doing. Davenport, T. & Prusak, L. (2000) stated that employee often assumes that the people in top of ‘organizational hierarchy’ have greater knowledge and expertise and this difference amongst individual may be seen as a barrier. Employees on different hierarchical or designations frequently struggle to share knowledge between these levels, as they feel they may have much or more knowledge on a particular subject but not consulted or totally ignored because of their position in organization. Furthermore Webb, S. (1998) revealed that managers often try to avoid consult subordinates because they might ‘fear for losing face’. If skills are greatly diverse within professional areas and/or within ranks, it might obstruct the tools and practice through the knowledge is shared between levels.
內部分歧是普遍的障礙。每個部門、總部外辦事處、服務提供場所或項目團隊都傾向于關注自己的問題，與外界接觸有限，不知道其他部門在做什么。Davenport，T.&Prusak，L.指出，員工通常認為“組織層級”最高層的人員擁有更豐富的知識和專業知識，個人之間的差異可能被視為障礙。不同等級或指定的員工經常難以在這些級別之間分享知識，因為他們覺得自己可能對某一特定主題有很多或更多的知識，但由于他們在組織中的地位，他們沒有被咨詢或完全忽視。此外，Webb，S.揭示了管理者經常試圖避免咨詢下屬，因為他們可能“害怕丟臉”。如果專業領域和/或級別內的技能差異很大，這可能會阻礙工具和實踐，因為知識在各個級別之間共享。
Organization consists of multiple ‘genders’ and seeking assistance from same gender whether the person is helpful or not is normal cause and may be a barrier. Bartram, S. (2005) stated that women in managerial position often seen as one of the cultural barrier. Also assorted age makes a differentiation at the point of exchanging knowledge.
組織由多個“性別”組成，無論該人是否有幫助，尋求同一性別的幫助都是正常的原因，可能是一個障礙。Bartram，S.指出，擔任管理職位的女性通常被視為文化障礙之一。不同年齡的人在交換知識方面也有區別。
Webb S. (1998) believed that employees are unwilling to share knowledge if the future economic growth of ‘organization is unstable’ and they strive to secure their position by retention of tacit knowledge as power. The overall organization instability may spoil social networks and reduce flow of knowledge from one corner to another in an organization (Lesser, E. & Prusak, L. 2001). Management emphasis on individual rather than team, disincentive to knowledge sharing, competition between employees, motivational limitations, lack of acknowledging for the supplier of knowledge, sub-standard physical layout of work space, and fewer management commitments could be a constraint for knowledge sharing environment (Chase, R. 1997).
Webb S.認為，如果“組織”未來的經濟增長不穩定，員工不愿意分享知識，他們努力通過保留隱性知識作為權力來確保自己的地位。整個組織的不穩定性可能會破壞社會網絡，減少組織中從一個角落到另一個角落的知識流動。管理層強調個人而非團隊、阻礙知識共享、員工之間的競爭、激勵限制、缺乏對知識供應商的認可、工作空間的物理布局不符合標準以及管理層的承諾較少，這些都可能是知識共享環境的制約因素。
How the barriers of knowledge management can be managed?如何管理知識管理的障礙？
Knowledge management is a lengthy and iterative process and its related benefits realized over a period of time. There are no rapid fix solutions to counter these barriers. However to overcome these barriers an organizations require to undertake essential approaches and actions. According to Du Plessis, M. (2008) knowledge management barriers directly line up with organizational, national and personnel culture. Top and senior managements can play a significant role for instance by raising the awareness of knowledge management activities and its benefits into work place (Birkinshaw, J. 2001). At any level of knowledge management it is compulsory to make sure that employees trained on the basis of knowledge management, once the knew the insights of knowledge management they are enough able to see how its adds value into their routine jobs and how organization can create social and intangible capital. However if employees ignore or do not understand the notion of knowledge management then they will not be capable to leverage it completely, even though organizations have elegant knowledge management plans and systems. Flexibilities between departments could span knowledge sharing boundaries. Employees should not reserve by position in a hierarchy and retain by resources.
知識管理是一個漫長而反復的過程，其相關利益在一段時間內實現。沒有快速解決方案來應對這些障礙。然而，為了克服這些障礙，組織需要采取必要的方法和行動。根據Du Plessis，M.的觀點，知識管理障礙與組織、國家和人員文化直接相關。高層和高級管理人員可以發揮重要作用，例如，通過提高對知識管理活動及其對工作場所的益處的認識。在任何級別的知識管理中，都必須確保員工在知識管理的基礎上接受培訓，一旦他們了解了知識管理的見解，他們就能夠充分了解知識管理如何為他們的日常工作增加價值，以及組織如何創造社會和無形資本。然而，如果員工忽視或不理解知識管理的概念，那么他們將無法完全利用知識管理，即使組織擁有優雅的知識管理計劃和系統。部門之間的靈活性可以跨越知識共享的界限。員工不應按職位保留，而應按資源保留。
Davenport, T. & Prusak, L. (2000) stated that the components of knowledge management: people, process and technology must be uniformly supplied in terms of time and money. The most powerful force in knowledge management is people because they can able to change their environment so trust in people is an extraordinary phenomenon in managing people and their knowledge. Milton, N. (nd) described two other ways to manage knowledge called connect and collect, however these terms are vastly similar to the Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. ‘SECI model’ (see section 2.7). The S mean Socialization and it begins through the connecting people into social networks where they can able to talk, to share dialogues with other people where the other three boxes named Externalization, Combination and Internalization is all about revolving tacit knowledge into explicit into tacit knowledge. For example knowledge is documented, recorded into knowledge system or knowledge repository in an organized way thus the others can access it. Organizational culture should abide for mistakes by recognizing and gratifying innovative errors, also there should be no fear of losing position from not knowing the entire thing (Gillingham, H. & Robert, B. 2006). In the view of Barnes, P. (2007), decentralize structure gives opportunities to know where the decisive knowledge is located and able to make more accurate decisions. Incentive and reward systems not only influence members to support knowledge management activities but it also encourage their willingness to take part in the creation and sharing knowledge (Yeh, Y. et al., 2006). Lack of trust alters into culture of trust and confidence get by face to face interactions; it’s not only the way of transferring tacit knowledge between individuals but it allows to evaluating the trustworthiness of both the giver and the receiver. Use of technology in knowledge management stipulates user training and members should have skills available other than technical ones such as interpersonal skills. According to the Abell, A. & Oxbrow, N. (2001) technologies should not be the driver and substitute of social interactions; neither should it be a barrier.
Davenport，T.&Prusak，L.指出，知識管理的組成部分：人員、流程和技術必須在時間和金錢方面統一提供。知識管理中最強大的力量是人，因為他們能夠改變自己的環境，因此對人的信任是管理人及其知識的一種非凡現象。Milton，N.（描述了另外兩種管理知識的方法，稱為連接和收集，但這些術語與Nonaka，I.和Takeuchi，H.的“SECI模型”極為相似。S意味著社會化，它開始于將人們連接到社交網絡中，在社交網絡中他們可以交談，與其他人分享對話，其中其他三個框“外部化”、“組合”和“內部化”都是關于將隱性知識轉化為顯性知識和隱性知識。例如，知識以有組織的方式被記錄、記錄到知識系統或知識庫中，從而其他人可以訪問它。組織文化應該通過承認和滿足創新錯誤來容忍錯誤，也不應該因為不了解整個事情而害怕失去地位。Barnes，P.認為，去中心化結構提供了了解決定性知識所在位置的機會，并能夠做出更準確的決策。激勵和獎勵制度不僅影響成員支持知識管理活動，還鼓勵他們參與知識創造和分享的意愿。缺乏信任會轉變為面對面交流中獲得的信任和信心文化；這不僅是在個人之間傳遞隱性知識的方式，而且可以評估給予者和接受者的可信度。在知識管理中使用技術規定了用戶培訓，成員應具備除技術技能以外的其他技能，如人際交往技能。根據Abell，A.和Oxbrow，N.的觀點，技術不應成為社會互動的驅動力和替代品；這也不應成為障礙。
Summary 總結
Every organizations is a knowledge based and they possesses particular knowledge in various forms such as in human capital, structure capital, intellectual capital etc. and the issue of knowledge management is essential because organization lives in uncertain world. The above literature has been identified potential barriers to knowledge management which was categorized into organizational culture, people perceptions, ineffective processes and obsolete technologies. There is no cause to believe that those barriers will not impact on knowledge sharing to a more or fewer extent within an organization and between personnel. However the rationale of this study was not to classify an extensive organizational barrier profile but the principle was merely to recognize a set of commonly studied barriers in knowledge management which can be apparent in various means across an organization. When organizations managed and implement knowledge in a logical and structure way it can add value to both the employees and organizations effectiveness. The literature review also fascinated that knowledge management is a social activity or relies on social models, even though sharing of knowledge can be possible from technologies but recipient and sender of knowledge are still humans. Organizational culture, employee’s perceptions and their characteristics, sources of knowledge creation and the context in which knowledge is shared are key consideration in knowledge management.
Literature Review總結每個組織都是以知識為基礎的，它們擁有各種形式的特定知識，如人力資本、結構資本、智力資本等，知識管理問題至關重要，因為組織生活在不確定的世界中。上述文獻已經確定了知識管理的潛在障礙，這些障礙分為組織文化、人員認知、無效流程和過時技術。沒有理由相信，這些障礙或多或少不會影響組織內部和人員之間的知識共享。然而，這項研究的基本原理并不是要對廣泛的組織障礙進行分類，而是要認識到知識管理中一組常見的障礙，這些障礙可以在整個組織中以各種方式表現出來。當組織以邏輯和結構的方式管理和實施知識時，它可以為員工和組織的效率增加價值。這篇文獻綜述還讓人著迷的是，知識管理是一種社會活動或依賴于社會模式，盡管技術可以共享知識，但知識的接受者和發送者仍然是人類。組織文化、員工的認知及其特征、知識創造的來源以及知識共享的環境是知識管理的關鍵考慮因素。本站提供各國各專業留學生Literature Review代寫或知道服務，如有需要可咨詢本平臺。
