經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)Essay怎么寫：Analysis of Open and Closed Economies

本文是經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)專業(yè)的Essay范例，題目是“Analysis of Open and Closed Economies（開放與封閉經(jīng)濟(jì)分析）”，開放經(jīng)濟(jì)是指國內(nèi)社會(huì)與外部社會(huì)之間有經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)的經(jīng)濟(jì)，例如，包括企業(yè)在內(nèi)的人們可以與國際社會(huì)的其他人和企業(yè)進(jìn)行貨物和服務(wù)貿(mào)易，以及資金作為投資跨境流動(dòng)。貿(mào)易的形式可以是管理交流、技術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)讓、各種商品和服務(wù)。雖然，也有一些不能交換的例外，比如，一個(gè)國家的鐵路服務(wù)不能與另一個(gè)國家進(jìn)行貿(mào)易，以獲得這種服務(wù)，但一個(gè)國家必須自己生產(chǎn)。這與無法進(jìn)行國際貿(mào)易和金融的封閉經(jīng)濟(jì)形成了鮮明對(duì)比。

1.0 DEFINITION OF OPEN ECONOMY AND CLOSED ECONOMY開放經(jīng)濟(jì)和封閉經(jīng)濟(jì)的定義

An open economy is an economy in which there are economic activities between domestic community and outside, e.g. people, including businesses, can trade in goods and services with other people and businesses in the international community, and flow of funds as investment across the border. Trade can be in the form of managerial exchange, technology transfers, all kinds of goods and services. Although, there are certain exceptions that cannot be exchanged, like, railway services of a country cannot be traded with another to avail this service, a country has to produce its own. This contrasts with a closed economy in which international trade and finance cannot take place.

The act of selling goods or services to a foreign country is called exporting. The act of buying goods or services from a foreign country is called importing. Together exporting and importing are collectively called international trade. There are a number of advantages for citizens of a country with an open economy. One primary advantage is that the citizen consumers have a much larger variety of goods and services from which to choose. Additionally, consumers have an opportunity to invest their savings outside of the country. In an open economy, a country’s spending in any given year need not to equal its output of goods and services. A country can spend more money than it produces by borrowing from abroad, or it can spend less than it produces and lend the difference to foreigners. There is no closed economy in today’s world.

An economy in which no activity is conducted with outside economies. A closed economy is self-sufficient, meaning that no imports are brought in and no exports are sent out. The goal is to provide consumers with everything that they need from within the economy’s borders. A closed economy is the opposite of an open economy, in which a country will conduct trade with outside regions.

一種不與外部經(jīng)濟(jì)進(jìn)行任何活動(dòng)的經(jīng)濟(jì)。封閉的經(jīng)濟(jì)是自給自足的，這意味著沒有進(jìn)口，也沒有出口。其目標(biāo)是為消費(fèi)者提供他們?cè)诮?jīng)濟(jì)范圍內(nèi)所需要的一切。封閉的經(jīng)濟(jì)與開放的經(jīng)濟(jì)是對(duì)立的，開放的經(jīng)濟(jì)是一個(gè)國家對(duì)外進(jìn)行貿(mào)易的經(jīng)濟(jì)。

1.1 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OPEN ECONOMY AND CLOSED ECONOMY

1.2 COUNTRY WHO PRACTISE OPEN ECONOMY AND CLOSED ECONOMY

American countries in adopting open economy and free and other trade practices or the United States an open economy is the opposite of a managed economy. It is one that is characteristically market-oriented, with free market policies rather than government-imposed price controls. In an open economy industries tend to be privately owned rather than owned by the government. In the area of international trade an open economy is one whose policies promote free trade over protectionism .On the other hand, a managed or closed economy is characterized by protective tariffs, state-run or nationalized industries, extensive government regulations and price controls, and similar policies indicative of a government-controlled economy. In a managed economy the government typically intervenes to influence the production of goods and services. In an open economy, market forces are allowed to determine production levels. A completely open economy exists only in theory. For example, no country in the world allows unlimited free access to its markets. Most nations have fiscal and monetary policies that attempt to improve their economies. Many economies that are open in some respects may still have government owned, monopolistic industries. A country is considered to have an open economy, however, if its policies allow market forces to determine such matters as production and pricing.

1.3 CONSUMPTION AMONG OPEN ECONOMY AND CLOSED ECONOMY

In a closed economy, all output is sold domestically, and expenditure is divided into three components: consumption, investment, and government purchases.

Y = C + I + G an open economy, some output is sold domestically and some is exported to be sold abroad. We can divide expenditure on an open economy’s output Y into four components: Cd, consumption of domestic goods and services, Id, investment in domestic goods and services, good government purchases of domestic goods and services, X, exports of domestic goods and services. The division of expenditure into these components is expressed in the identity.

1.4 INVESTMENT AMONG THE OPEN ECONOMY AND CLOSED ECONOMY開放經(jīng)濟(jì)與封閉經(jīng)濟(jì)之間的投資

An open economy is one that engages in international exchange of goods, services, and investments. Exports are goods and services sold to buyers outside the country, while imports are those purchased from foreigners. The difference between exports and imports of goods and services is called net exports. When foreign trade is introduced, domestic demand can differ from national output. Domestic demand comprises consumption, investment, and government purchases (C + I + G). To obtain GDP, exports Ex) must be added and imports (Im) subtracted, GDP = C + I + G + X.

開放型經(jīng)濟(jì)是指從事國際商品、服務(wù)和投資交換的經(jīng)濟(jì)。出口是指賣給國外買家的商品和服務(wù)，而進(jìn)口是指從外國人那里購買的商品和服務(wù)。商品和服務(wù)的出口和進(jìn)口之間的差額稱為凈出口。當(dāng)引入對(duì)外貿(mào)易時(shí)，國內(nèi)需求可能與國民產(chǎn)出有所不同。國內(nèi)需求包括消費(fèi)、投資和政府采購(C + I + G)。要計(jì)算GDP，必須加上出口(Ex)，減去進(jìn)口(Im)， GDP = C + I + G + X。

1.5 IMPORT AMONG THE OPEN ECONOMY AND CLOSED ECONOMY

The act of selling goods or services to a foreign country is called exporting. The act of buying goods or services from a foreign country is called importing. Together exporting and importing are collectively called international trade. There are a number of advantages for citizens of a country with an open economy. One primary advantage is that the citizen consumers have a much larger variety of goods and services from which to choose. Additionally, consumers have an opportunity to invest their savings outside of the country.

2.0 UTILIZE利用

Utility, or usefulness, is the ability of something to satisfy needs or wants. Utility is an important concept in economics and game theory, because it represents satisfaction experienced by the consumer of a good. Not coincidentally, a good is something that satisfies human wants and provides utility, for example, to a consumer making a purchase. It was recognized that one cannot directly measure benefit, satisfaction or happiness from a good or service, so instead economists have devised ways of representing and measuring utility in terms of economic choices that can be counted. Economists have attempted to perfect highly abstract methods of comparing utilities by observing and calculating economic choices. In the simplest sense, economists consider utility to be revealed in people’s willingness to pay different amounts for an economic term referring to the total satisfaction received from consuming a good or service. A company that generates transmits and/or distributes electricity, water and/or gas from facilities that it owns and/or operates.

效用，或有用性，是指某物滿足需求或欲望的能力。效用是經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)和博弈論中的一個(gè)重要概念，因?yàn)樗砹讼M(fèi)者對(duì)一件商品的滿意體驗(yàn)。并非巧合的是，商品是滿足人類需求并提供效用的東西，例如，消費(fèi)者在購買時(shí)。人們認(rèn)識(shí)到，不能直接從一件商品或服務(wù)中衡量效益、滿意度或幸福感，因此，經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家們?cè)O(shè)計(jì)了一些方法，用可以計(jì)算的經(jīng)濟(jì)選擇來表示和衡量效用。經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家試圖通過觀察和計(jì)算經(jīng)濟(jì)選擇來完善比較效用的高度抽象的方法。從最簡單的意義上說，經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家認(rèn)為效用體現(xiàn)在人們?cè)敢鉃橐粋€(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)術(shù)語支付不同數(shù)額的錢，這個(gè)術(shù)語指的是人們從消費(fèi)一種商品或服務(wù)中獲得的總滿足感。從自己擁有和/或運(yùn)營的設(shè)施中產(chǎn)生、傳輸和/或分配電力、水和/或天然氣的公司。

2.1 WEALTH DISTRIBUTION

The distribution of wealth is a comparison of the wealth of various members or groups in a society. It differs from the distribution of income in that it looks at the distribution of ownership of the assets in a society; the word “wealth” is often confused with “income”. These two terms describe different but related things. Wealth consists of those items of economic value that an individual owns, while income is an inflow of items of economic value (See Stock and flow.) The relation between wealth, income, and expenses is rather than the current income of members of that society.

2.2 FOUR PRODUCTION FACTORS EFFICIENTLY AMONG WEALTH DISTRIBUTION四種生產(chǎn)要素在財(cái)富分配中的有效作用

The four factors of production in economics are land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship. In economics, factors of product’ are the inputs to the production process. Finished goods are the output. Input determines the quantity of output i.e. output depends upon input. Input is the starting point and output is the end point of production process and such input-output relationship is called a production function. There are three basic factors of production: land, labor, capital. Some modern economists also consider entrepreneurship for a factor of production. These factors are also frequently labeled “producer goods” in order to distinguish them from the goods or services purchased by consumers, which are frequently labeled “consumer goods.” All three of these are required in combination at a time to produce commodity. In economics, production means creation or an addition of utility. Factors of production (or productive ‘inputs’ or ‘resources’) are any commodities or services used to produce goods or services.

經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)中的四種生產(chǎn)要素是土地、勞動(dòng)力、資本和企業(yè)家精神。在經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)中，產(chǎn)品要素是生產(chǎn)過程的投入。成品就是產(chǎn)出。投入決定產(chǎn)出的數(shù)量，即產(chǎn)出取決于投入。投入是生產(chǎn)過程的起點(diǎn)，產(chǎn)出是生產(chǎn)過程的終點(diǎn)，這種投入產(chǎn)出關(guān)系稱為生產(chǎn)函數(shù)。有三種基本的生產(chǎn)要素:土地、勞動(dòng)力、資本。一些現(xiàn)代經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家也將企業(yè)家精神視為一種生產(chǎn)要素。這些因素也經(jīng)常被貼上“生產(chǎn)商品”的標(biāo)簽，以便與消費(fèi)者購買的經(jīng)常被貼上“消費(fèi)品”標(biāo)簽的商品或服務(wù)區(qū)分開來。所有這三種因素需要同時(shí)結(jié)合起來才能生產(chǎn)商品。在經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)中，生產(chǎn)意味著創(chuàng)造或增加效用。生產(chǎn)要素(或生產(chǎn)性“投入”或“資源”)是用來生產(chǎn)商品或服務(wù)的任何商品或服務(wù)。

Factors of production may also refer specifically to the primary factors, which are stocks including land, labor the ability to work, and capital goods applied to production. Materials and energy are considered as secondary factors in classical economics because they are obtained from land, labor and capital. The primary factors facilitate production but neither become part of the product as with raw materials nor become significantly transformed by the production process as with fuel used to power machinery. Land includes not only the site of production but natural resources above or below the soil. The factor land may, however, for simplification purposes are merged with capital in some case due to land being of little importance in the service sector and manufacturing. Recent usage has distinguished human capital the stock of knowledge in the labor force from labor. Entrepreneurship is also sometimes considered a factor of production. Sometimes the overall state of technology is described as a factor of production. The number and definition of factors varies, depending on theoretical purpose, empirical emphasis, or school of economics.

2.3 INTRODUCE NEW TECHNOLOGY AMONG WEALTH DISTRIBUTION在財(cái)富分配中引入新技術(shù)

In exchange relations two actors come to an agreement to trade with each other on mutually agreed-upon terms. Something is delivered, and something is expected in return, in a quid pro quo (“something for something”) relation. In product and labor markets, exchanges typically involve a flow of goods or services from seller to buyer, in return for a monetary payment. The monetary payments in turn create flows of labor and capital income. For example, when customers buy shoes from a mall shoe store, the incomes created include the payment of a wage to the shoe salesperson, rent to the owners of the mall, and profits to the owners of the business. Labor income is compensation received by workers in the form of wages, salaries, and fringe benefits. Capital income includes rents, profits, and interest. (Rent as economists use the term, refers not just to rent for housing, but to payments for the use of any asset).

在交換關(guān)系中，兩個(gè)行動(dòng)者就雙方同意的條件彼此進(jìn)行貿(mào)易達(dá)成協(xié)議。在quid pro quo(“以物換物”)關(guān)系中，一些東西被交付，一些東西被期待作為回報(bào)。在產(chǎn)品和勞動(dòng)力市場(chǎng)，交換通常涉及商品或服務(wù)從賣方到買方的流動(dòng)，以換取貨幣支付。貨幣支付反過來又創(chuàng)造了勞動(dòng)力和資本收入的流動(dòng)。例如，當(dāng)客戶從商場(chǎng)的鞋店購買鞋子時(shí)，所創(chuàng)造的收入包括支付給鞋子銷售人員的工資、支付給商場(chǎng)所有者的租金以及支付給企業(yè)所有者的利潤。勞動(dòng)收入是勞動(dòng)者以工資、工資和福利等形式獲得的補(bǔ)償。資本收入包括租金、利潤和利息。(經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家使用租金這個(gè)術(shù)語時(shí)，不僅指房屋租金，還指為使用任何資產(chǎn)而支付的費(fèi)用)。

2.4 INVESTMENT IN NEWPLANT AND EQUIPMENT AMONG WEALTH DISTRIBUTION

Distribution of wealth and income, the way in which the wealth and income of a nation are divided among its population, or the way in which the wealth and income of the world are divided among nations. Such patterns of distribution are discerned and studied by various statistical means, all of which are based on data of varying degrees of reliability.

Wealth is an accumulated store of possessions and financial claims. It may be given a monetary value if prices can be determined for each of the possessions; this process can be difficult when the possessions are such that they are not likely to be offered for sale. Income is a net total of the flow of payments received in a given time period. Some countries collect statistics on wealth from legally required evaluations of the estates of deceased persons, which may or may not be indicative of what is possessed by the living. In many countries, annual tax statements that measure income provide more or less reliable information.

財(cái)富是積累起來的財(cái)產(chǎn)和財(cái)務(wù)要求。如果可以確定每一件財(cái)產(chǎn)的價(jià)格，它就可以被賦予貨幣價(jià)值;當(dāng)這些財(cái)產(chǎn)不太可能被出售時(shí)，這個(gè)過程可能會(huì)很困難。收入是指在一定時(shí)期內(nèi)收到的所有款項(xiàng)的凈總額。一些國家根據(jù)法律要求對(duì)死者的遺產(chǎn)進(jìn)行評(píng)估，收集有關(guān)財(cái)富的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)字，這可能表明生者擁有什么，也可能不表明。在許多國家，衡量收入的年度納稅報(bào)表提供的信息或多或少是可靠的。

2.5 ENSURE SUFFICIENT DEMAND AND SUPPLY FOR PRODUCTS AMONG WEALTH DISTRIBUTION

Have been described as the most directly observable attributes of goods produced and exchanged in a market economy. The theory of supply and demand is an organizing principle for explaining how prices coordinate the amounts produced and consumed. In microeconomics, it applies to price and output determination for a market with perfect competition, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting power.

For a given market of a commodity, demand is the relation of the quantity that all buyers would be prepared to purchase at each unit price of the good. Demand is often represented by a table or a graph showing price and quantity demanded (as in the figure). Demand theory describes individual consumers as rationally choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc. A term for this is “constrained utility maximization” (with income and wealth as the constraints on demand). Here, utility refers to the hypothesized relation of each individual consumer for ranking different commodity bundles as more or less preferred.

對(duì)于給定的商品市場(chǎng)，需求是所有買方準(zhǔn)備以該商品的每一單位價(jià)格購買的數(shù)量的關(guān)系。需求通常用表格或圖表來表示價(jià)格和需求量(如圖所示)。需求理論將個(gè)體消費(fèi)者描述為在給定收入、價(jià)格、口味等條件下，理性地選擇每種商品最喜歡的數(shù)量。一個(gè)術(shù)語是“約束效用最大化”(將收入和財(cái)富作為需求的約束)。這里的效用是指假設(shè)每個(gè)個(gè)體消費(fèi)者對(duì)不同的商品包進(jìn)行排序或多或少的偏好。

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