會計 Essay代寫范文翻譯：Accounting for Corporate Accountability
本文是會計專業的留學生Essay范例，題目是“Accounting for Corporate Accountability（企業責任會計）”,會計世界比以往任何時候都更加復雜。公允價值等計量基礎在許多組織的財務報告中很常見，因為它經常被視為“純粹的衡量”，并促進會計核算的一致性(Barth和Landsman, 2018)。另一些人認為公允價值具有誤導性，在測量某些資產和負債時難以應用，還有其他更適用的方法。該報告應分析Superdry的財務狀況報表，并評估用于得出公司資產價值的不同計量基礎。
Superdry Plc 超級公司
The world of accounting is more complex than ever. Measurement bases such as fair value is common in many organisations financial reports as it is often considered to be seen as a 'pure measure' and promotes consistency within accounts (Barth and Landsman, 2018). Others believe that fair value is misleading and is difficult to apply whilst measuring certain assets and liabilities and there are alternative methods that are more applicable. This report shall analyse Superdry's statement of financial position and evaluate the different measurement bases used to derive the value of the firm's assets.
Fair value 公平價值
Much of the current accounting standards and Superdry's preparation of financial report has revolved around fair value and under the assumption that the concept of markets is in a perfectly competitive equilibrium. In these conditions, there is a unique market price which is based on a full information of assets and an attraction to this price as a measurement tool. This ideal measurement based on market price is the fair value (Barth and Landsman, 2018). Superdry has implemented fair value to measure variety of their organisational assets and liabilities.
許多現行的會計準則和Superdry的財務報告都是圍繞公允價值，并在市場概念處于完全競爭均衡的假設下進行的。在這種情況下，有一個獨特的市場價格，它是基于資產的充分信息，并吸引以這個價格作為衡量工具。這種基于市場價格的理想衡量方法是公允價值(Barth and Landsman, 2018)。Superdry已經實施了公允價值來衡量其組織的各種資產和負債。
The use of fair value to measure assets and liabilities is prevalent throughout the financial report of Superdry. Accounting policies implemented by Superdry has been prepared under the historical cost convention as modified by fair values (Superdry, 2019). These measurement basis act in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standard (IFRS) acquired for use in the European Union and commensurate with the Companies Act 2006 (Nobes, 2015).
Superdry has contrived fair value to measure the foreign exchange contract of the firm from 2018 to April 2019. Fair value re-measurement of the contract increased substantially from ￡20.8m in 2018 to ￡23.9m in 2019. The foreign exchange contract is allocated as an exceptional and other item as the unrealised gains and losses on these trades do not reflect the underlying trading performance of Superdry (Superdry, 2019). Further, other derivative financial instruments such as trade receivables and cash/ cash equivalents were recognised and re-measured at fair value at the end of each reporting period (Superdry, 2019). All the gains and losses made by the financial instruments (measured by fair value) were recognised in Superdry's income statement.
Superdry group has deployed the acquisition method of accounting for business entities that do not operate under common control (Superdry, 2019). The consideration transferred in order to acquire a subsidiary includes the fair value of an assets and liabilities due to the results from a possible consideration arrangement (Superdry, 2019). The cost of acquisition is considered as incurred expenses and any assets acquired in a business combination are measured initially at their fair values in relation to their acquisition date (Superdry, 2019).
However, the concept of fair value is set in a belief that markets are complete, but this is not always the case as markets are dynamic and may not operate in a perfectly competitive equilibrium (Ronen, 2008). According to Grossman and Stiglitz (1980), asymmetric information between parties is a key barrier to market perfection as prices cannot reflect the information available and information is costly. This means that the market price for an asset identified using fair value might be less reliable due to information asymmetry and dynamic market conditions. This is further elaborated by Beaver and Demski (1979), as they stated that if the market was complete and perfect, there will be no obligation for firms like Superdry to provide accounts information as everyone will be informed. This demonstrates that accounts should be considered as a provider of useful information rather than measurement information.
Other problems of using fair value are, it showcases lot of emphasis on selling price rather than the net realisable value which is selling price less cost to sell (Dean, 2010). This means that fair value fails to measure the items in terms of actual cash flow stemming from the assets. Further, use of exit prices rather than entry prices precludes the possibility of entry prices being more appropriate in certain circumstances (Lennard, 2010). For instance, replacement costs of assets used by Superdry, may better capture the cost of using assets such as machinery and leads to more useful measures of profit margins in a going concern business like Superdry (Lennard, 2010). Additionally, market prices regarded by fair value are non-entity specific meaning that fair value does not reflect the circumstances and economic opportunities facing Superdry (Penman, 2007). In a real business world, accounts should relate to reporting the state of a specific entity like Superdry, in order to fulfill the accountability function to users who are not fully informed. All these problems associated to fair value culminates to the reasons why many firms are less willing to use fair value measurement for wider range of their assets.
Valuation of Superdry's inventories 超級庫存的價值
As of April 2019, Superdry held inventory worth of ￡190.8m and stock provision was ￡3.9m (LSE, 2019). The valuation of inventories involved of judgement in recording provisions for obsolete inventory. Superdry's accounting policy is established upon the ageing of inventory by season, with percentage provision applied which reflects the historical rate of losses made (Superdry, 2019). In order to test the adequacy of inventory provision, Superdry considered the historical accuracy of managements provisioning percentages for inventory (Superdry, 2019).
截至2019年4月，Superdry持有價值1.980億英鎊的庫存，庫存撥備為390萬英鎊(倫敦證交所，2019年)。存貨的估價涉及對存貨過期準備的記錄的判斷。Superdry的會計政策是根據季度存貨的老化情況制定的，使用了反映歷史損失率的百分比撥備(Superdry, 2019)。為了測試庫存準備的充分性，Superdry考慮了庫存管理準備百分比的歷史準確性(Superdry, 2019)。
Using historical data/ historical cost accounting (past entry value) has its own merits and demerits. Unlike fair value which emphasises the behaviour of the market, historical cost accounting does not acknowledge market value of the financial assets. This makes it easier for Superdry to use historical cost accounting to predict future outcomes and provide valuation of the firm's inventories. Further, historical data are considered to be objective, reliable and allows Superdry to keep track of their inventories (Reis, 2007).
However, historical cost accounting does not contemplate the present/real value of assets in the current market (Reis, 2007). For instance, Superdry using provisioning percentages from the past to predict the future sales or losses of inventories may not always be correct and expected outcomes could differ from predicted rates. Further, historical cost accounting fails to consider economic factors such as inflation levels and changing prices (Whittington, 2010). During the inflation period, the price of assets such as inventories is distinct as there is substantial level of changes in price, it reflects vast difference between the original price and the current market price (Grossman and Stiglitz, 1980). This means that the methodology used by historical cost accounting fails to incorporate dynamic economic and market conditions and failure to acknowledge changes in price can lead to major discrepancies on a financial statement. This leads to me questioning the reliability and appropriateness of this method and is Superdry making a mistake by using historical cost accounting to provide valuation of their inventories?
Valuation of Superdry's Retail stores/assets 評估Superdry的零售商店/資產
Majority of Superdry's financial and non-financial assets such as retail store assets were subjected to impairment. In accounting, impairment refers to comparing the current book value of an asset to the cash flow projections or total profit expected to be generated by that specific asset (Hashim, Li and O'Hanlon, 2016). Superdry's retail owned assets are leasehold and value in use measurement base was considered in the impairment assessment. Value in use of the assets were calculated using expected future cash flows which incorporated discount rates, management assumptions and estimates of future performance (Superdry, 2019). In total, an impairment of ￡42.6m was discerned in April 2019, this was an increase of ￡37.3m from ￡5.3m in 2018 (Superdry, 2019).
Superdry的大部分金融資產和非金融資產，如零售商店的資產都受到了減值影響。在會計中，減值是指將某項資產的當前賬面價值與該特定資產預計產生的現金流預測或總利潤進行比較(Hashim, Li and O’hanlon, 2016)。Superdry的零售自有資產為租賃資產，在減值評估中考慮了使用價值計量基礎。資產使用價值是根據預期未來現金流計算的，其中包括貼現率、管理假設和對未來業績的估計(Superdry, 2019)。總的來說，2019年4月辨別出了4260萬英鎊的減值，這比2018年的530萬英鎊增加了3730萬英鎊(Superdry, 2019)。
To implement testing purposes, Superdry considered each store as CGU (cash generating unit) and each CGU was tested for impairment if any indicator was identified. As sales of Superdry has plummeted in recent years, all 248 stores were tested for impairment in 2019 (Superdry, 2019).
Value in use of each CGU was calculated based on Superdry's forecasted cash flows and latest budget, covering a four-year period (Superdry's medium term financial plan) which regards historic performance (Superdry, 2019). Cash flows were discounted using the weighted average cost of capital WACC, cash flows beyond the four-year period were extrapolated using long term growth rates that approximate to country specific rates (Superdry, 2019).
As mentioned above, the store impairment review involved management making several estimates to identify the Value in use of the stores which being the net present value of the forecasted cash flows (Superdry, 2019). With every management decision made, there is the possibility of association to 'agency theory', which refers to managers in Superdry acting in their own interest to maximise their own personal utility as opposed to making decisions on behalf of the organisation (Bou?ková, 2015). In this assessment, management determined each store to be a cash generating unit and as most decisions are made by management, these factors question the key audit matter related to the overall appropriateness of the estimates.
Property, plant and equipment物業、廠房及設備
Similar to inventories, Superdry's non-financial assets such as property, plants and equipment are stated at historical cost less accumulated depreciation and impairment (Superdry, 2019). Original purchase price and the costs involved to function the asset is equalled to the total cost (Superdry, 2019). Depreciation is provided at rates and is calculated by dividing the depreciable amount of the fixed asset (which is the difference between salvage value and cost) by its useful economic life span (Superdry, 2019). The process of calculating deprecation of Superdry's assets are shown below: (Source: Superdry, 2019)
與存貨類似，Superdry的非金融資產，如物業、廠房和設備，均按歷史成本減去累計折舊和減值(Superdry, 2019)列報。原始購買價格和運行資產所涉及的成本等于總成本(Superdry, 2019)。折舊是按比率提供的，計算方法是將固定資產的可折舊金額(即殘值與成本之間的差值)除以其有效經濟壽命(Superdry, 2019)。Superdry資產折舊計算過程如下:(來源:Superdry, 2019)
Freehold buildings = 50 years on a straight-line basis
Furnitures, fixture and fittings at = 5-10 years straight-line basis
Computer equipment's = 3-5 years straight line basis
Leasehold improvements = 5-10 years straight line basis
Similar to the impairment of retail stores, the carrying values of non-financial assets such as plant and equipment of Superdry was tested annually to determine whether if any impairment is required. The recoverable amount of Superdry's non-financial asset is higher than its value in use and fair value less costs to sell (Superdry, 2019). In this case, Superdry has made an impairment gain as the carrying amount of these assets does not exceed its recoverable amount.
Intangible assets無形資產
Intangible assets were initially identified at a cost. After recognition, Superdry measured the intangible asset at cost less accumulated amortisation (Superdry, 2019). Superdry's intangible assets with no residual value and with finite life are amortised on a straight-line basis over their life span as: (Source: Superdry, 2019)
無形資產最初按成本計價。確認后，Superdry以成本減少累計攤銷的方式計量無形資產(Superdry, 2019)。Superdry公司無剩余價值且使用壽命有限的無形資產按壽命直線攤銷如下:(來源:Superdry, 2019)
Website and software = 5 years
Trademarks = 10 years
Lease premiums = over the life of the lease on straight-line basis
Distribution agreements = 6 –23 years
In rare cases, companies may choose to measure the asset at fair values if it can be resolved by reference to an active market (IFRS, 2019). One of Superdry's intangible assets, distribution agreements, comprise the fair value, at the date of acquisition of the agreements as part of a business combination (Superdry, 2019).
Alternative measurement base 選擇測量基礎
In modern accounting, few alternative measurement bases have been devised to approach problems corresponding with fair values and historical cost accounting. One of the methods formulated is deprival value and Superdry can potentially implement this method in their financial statements in the future. This method advocates informational approach rather than solely emphasising on pure measurement approach and has advantage over other methods as it identifies the most appropriate value measure in particular economic conditions (Macve, 2010). Further, DV is more appropriate to regulatory and managerial decisions (Weetman, 2007), whereas fair value fails the tests of reliability and relevance in accordance to measure business performance of Superdry (Penman, 2007). Fair value solely focuses on exit price at the measurement date may be considered hypothetical, as immediate disposal of assets may not be the best option and it ignores valuable transaction costs that could have been used in important decision making (Horton, Macve and Serafeim, 2019). These are the reasons why many ignore the concept of fair value and this has seen a surge in formulation of new methods such as deprival value. Using deprival value allows firms like Superdry to be more consistent with current conventions for income statement and revenue and profit measurement presentation (Whittington, 1998).
在現代會計中，很少有替代的計量基礎被設計來處理與公允價值和歷史成本會計相對應的問題。制定的方法之一是剝奪價值，Superdry可能會在未來的財務報表中實施這一方法。該方法提倡信息方法，而不是單純強調純計量方法，它比其他方法更有優勢，因為它確定了在特定經濟條件下最合適的價值計量方法(Macve, 2010)。此外，DV更適合于監管和管理決策(Weetman, 2007)，而公允價值未能通過可靠性和相關性測試，以衡量Superdry的業務績效(Penman, 2007)。公允價值只關注計量日期的退出價格可能被認為是假設的，因為立即處置資產可能不是最好的選擇，它忽略了本可以用于重要決策的寶貴交易成本(Horton, Macve和Serafeim, 2019)。這就是許多人忽視公允價值概念的原因，這也導致了諸如剝奪價值等新方法的涌現。使用剝奪價值使得像Superdry這樣的公司在利潤表和收入和利潤計量報告方面更符合當前的慣例(Whittington, 1998)。
However, there are potential limitations of deprival value if Superdry was to implement this methodology. Deprival value uses three different measures one of them being 'value in use' which is considered to be highly subjective, and this can lead to aggregation problems (Weetman, 2007). Further, deprival value uses decision trees and over relies on simple pedagogical formulation, there can be serious consequences of using these processes if it is not interpreted correctly (Macve, 2010). Lastly, we all need to remember that markets are imperfect and information asymmetry exists meaning choice of measurement objective is bound to involve a degree of subjective judgement.
In conclusion, Superdry has used variety of measurement bases in their financial report such as historical cost accounting (past entry value), fair value (exit price) and the highly subjective 'value in use.' As mentioned above, Superdry's accounting policies is based upon the ageing of inventories, with percentage provision applied reflecting the historical rate of losses made (Superdry, 2019).
總之，Superdry在其財務報告中使用了多種計量基礎，比如歷史成本會計(過去入賬價值)、公允價值(退出價格)以及高度主觀的“使用價值”。如上所述，Superdry的會計政策基于存貨的老化，使用的百分比撥備反映了歷史損失率(Superdry, 2019)。
This method allows Superdry to identify the progress made in executing the plan and acknowledge the values added/earnings from transactional exit prices with value surrendered/costs in transactional input prices (Dean, 2010). However, historical cost accounting has major flaws in its armour as it fails to report the current value of assets held by Superdry and majority of the outcomes predicted by historical rates may not always be correct. This questions the reliability and appropriateness of historical cost accounting.
Similarly, fair value has assisted Superdry to measures the value of the firm's foreign exchange contract. But using fair value fails to address the issues of dynamic market conditions and asymmetric information between parties (Barth and Landsman, 2018). This means that the price reflected or measured by fair value could potentially be misleading and this could cause major problems for Superdry as financial and timing costs may increase in order to remeasure their valuation of their assets.
To overcome these challenges, I strongly urge Superdry and other firms to implement deprival value (DV) to provide valuation of their assets. DV provides a decision rule for choosing the relevant measurement basis for any given economic situation and it promotes information approach as opposed to pure measurement procedure (Whittington, 1998). DV is far superior for internal use by managers and is relevant to assist managers to make important decisions (Weetman, 2007). But it is always important for accounts users to understand that, all of these methods have limitations and in the world of imperfect markets and asymmetry information it is difficult to find the perfect solution to these issues.
為了克服這些挑戰，我強烈敦促Superdry和其他公司實施剝奪價值(DV)，為其資產提供估值。DV為任何給定的經濟狀況提供了選擇相關測量基礎的決策規則，它促進了信息方法而不是單純的測量程序(Whittington, 1998)。DV對于管理者的內部使用要優越得多，并且有助于管理者做出重要的決策(Weetman, 2007)。但重要的是，帳戶用戶要明白，所有這些方法都有局限性，在市場不完善和信息不對稱的世界中，很難找到完美的解決方案，這些問題。
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